Category Archives: Transhuman News

In 2015, two former Blue Origin and SpaceX employees set out to form a startup with the borderline outrageous goal of 3D printing rockets and eventually using the technology to help colonize Mars.

Today, Relativity Space is the world's second most valuable private space company behind Elon Musk's SpaceX, despite not having launched a single rocket.

Relativity, cofounded by Tim Ellis and Jordan Noone, has raised more than $1.3 billion with backing from investors including Mark Cuban and Jared Leto, has an estimated valuation of $4.2 billion, a 1 million square-foot headquarters in Long Beach, and more than 700 employees. Ellis formerly worked in Blue Origin's metal 3D printing division. Noone worked on SpaceX's Dragon spaceships and engines.

Mark Cuban was an early investor in Relativity, agreeing to entirely fund the startup's $500,000 seed round after Ellis and Noone cold emailed him. Other investors include Y Combinator, Social Capital, Fidelity, and Tiger Global.

Ellis told Insider in 2018 that he believes 3D printing will be crucial for an interplanetary future where humans can live on Mars. That means going big: Relativity's says its Stargate 3D printers are the largest in the world, and have controls driven by artificial intelligence. The startup has made two rockets named Terran 1 and Terran R almost entirely by 3D printing.

The tech also known as additive manufacturing isn't new to the industry: Many companies 3D print individual parts of their aircraft. But Relativity is the first to build the majority roughly 95% of its vehicles using the method. It drastically limits the number of parts it needs, and is a boon for speed. Relativity says it can build a rocket in 60 days, compared to the average time of a year to 18 months.

The first test launch of Terran 1 is expected to take place within the next few months from Cape Canaveral in Florida, after being delayed from a planned launch in late 2021. A Relativity spokesperson told TechCrunch last August that there was "no one single reason" the launch was delayed, but noted the pandemic has slowed some processes. It will be the first-ever launch of a 3D printed rocket, and Ellis told Space.com in January that the rocket is the largest metal 3D printed object ever.

Terran R, which Relativity announced in June 2021, is designed to be fully reusable, carry larger payloads than Terran 1, and compete with Space X's Falcon 9 rockets. It's expected to start launching from Cape Canaveral as soon as 2024. Once the business is up and running, Relativity plans to charge its customers roughly $12 million per launch. SpaceX currently charges $62 million per launch of the Falcon 9 rockets, though Elon Musk recently said the company's Starship reusable rockets will cost less than $10 million within two to three years.

When asked where he sees the startup in five years, Josh Brost, Relativity's vice president of business development, said the company will be hyper-focused on becoming a top rocket launch company, but hinted that the Stargate printers could eventually be used to make things other than rockets.

"I think long-term there's tremendous opportunities to use this manufacturing tech to make other products better in addition to rockets," he said.

David Giger, Relativity's vice president of engineering, told Insider that, in the future, he hopes to see other startups getting into the 3D print manufacturing space.

"I think it's necessary for society to move in this direction," he said. "If you look at traditional production facilities that have millions and millions of dollars invested into CapEx and equipment that can only make one product and it can't be changed without very high expense, I think we need to move away from that approach and have a much more versatile manufacturing process."

The rest is here:
Relativity Space Is Taking on SpaceX With 3D-Printed Rockets - Business Insider

Terraforming Mars is now 21% off on Amazon, and which is a pretty stellar deal for the popular space board game.

This is a saving of over $14 for a popular space board game that revolves around galactic colonialization of Mars. Set in the 2400s, mankind is terraforming the red planet by trying to improve oxygen levels, raise the temperature and ocean coverage until the red planet becomes habitable.

While this is a good deal, if you want more in-depth coverage of space board games then be sure to check out our best space board games and space board games deals guides. If you like space games but this isn't quite the deal for you, then you can also check out our Lego space deals and best VR space games pages.

Not to mention this game features at the top of our best space board games, so now is a great time to grab a deal.

Suitable for one to five players aged 12 and above, Terraforming Mars is a great mix of entertainment - in colonizing another planet and playing with peers, and educational - learning about what it might actually take to do that.

Saving over $15 on a game that features at the top of our best space board games guide is a great deal. It provides hours of fun and there are even expansions to add more layers to this game too. Do you have what it takes to move mankind from one planet to another?

Follow Alexander Cox on Twitter@Coxy_97Official. Follow us on Twitter@Spacedotcomand onFacebook.

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Save 21% on Terraforming Mars and conquer the Red Planet - Space.com

Welcome back to ourongoing "Interplanetary Series." In our previous installments, we looked at what it would take to live on Mercury, Venus, the Moon, and Mars. Today, we take a look at the Main Asteroid Belt. This massive region of space contains several large bodies that could one day be settled by human beings.

For decades, futurists and theorists have pondered the idea of establishing a permanent human presence and infrastructure in the Asteroid Belt. Its abundant resources and the fact that it occupies a strategic spot between the inner and outer Solar systems make it an attractive option for future exploration and development.

In fact, asteroid mining is considered a means to ensure our survival and usher in a period of post-scarcity for our civilization. While the challenges are certainly herculean, the benefits are rather enticing. With a little imagination and creative design, the Belt could also become an attractive destination for those looking for a little adventure tourism and fun in low gravity.

Some day, interplanetary tourists could be listening to messages like this:

"Good morning, passengers! Welcome aboard the ferry liner Kirkwood, your one-stop service to Ceres! For those among you that are first-timers, be prepared for fun, adventure, and some of the most luxurious accommodations in the Solar System! While you're our guest, we insist you take full advantage of the low-gravity environment and the exotic surface!"

"A reminder that making the transition from an Earth-normal gravity environment can be difficult. Report to a clinician if you find yourself experiencing any of the following symptoms: vertigo, dizziness, vomiting, fainting spells, or rapid heart rate. These can be signs that you are having trouble adjusting. But don't worry, our expert staff will help you find your footing (not a guarantee)!"

"Adventure tours include day trips to Ahuna Mons, the highest peak on Ceres,and Occator, the largest crater. We also recommend the multi-day excursions to the famous "bright spots," Cerealia Facula and the Vinalia Faculae. And be sure to check out the bright spots here, including five-star accommodations, dining, gaming, and recreation centers."

"Those who are transferring to Vesta or Pallas must first pass through customs and biomonitoring for a second screening. We apologize for the inconvenience but remind people that maintaining public health is a priority here in the Belt. After all, the air we breathe is a shared amenity, so let's keep it clean and healthy!"

"A reminder that the import of flora and fauna is strictly prohibited. Please respect the local life cycle and not attempt to take seeds or plants from the local biome. All species on Ceres are adapted to the local gravity and are not likely to survive in another environment."

The discovery of the Asteroid Belt began in 1800 due to an issue with the then-known model of the Solar System. According to the Titius-Bode Law, which accurately predicted the orbits of the planets, there was an unexplained gap between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. To resolve this, the United Astronomical Society began observing this gap in the hopes of finding something.

The group included many famed astronomers, like William Herschel, who had discovered Uranus and its moons in the 1780s. Giuseppe Piazzi, the chair of astronomy at the University of Palermo, had been asked to join the Society. Ironically, he was the first to make a discovery in this region (consistent with what the Titus-Bode Law predicted) before the invitation had even arrived.

He named this object "Ceres" after the Roman god of the harvest and the patron god of Sicily. Fifteen months later, noted astronomer and Society member Heinrich Olbers discovered a second object in the same region, later named 2 Pallas. In appearance, these objects were little more than bright and moving dots.

This led Herschel to suggest they be designated as a new class of objects called "asteroids" (Greek for "star-like"). By the early 1850s, the term "asteroids" entered into common usage, as did "Asteroid Belt." Since the late 19th century, over 1 million objects have been identified in the Belt.

Located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, the Main Asteroid Belt is a torus-shaped region populated by bodies left over from the formation of the Solar System. It is designated as the "Main" Belt to distinguish it from asteroid populations such as Near-Earth Asteroids (NEAS) and the Trojan and Greek asteroids (which share an orbit with Jupiter).

At present, astronomers have cataloged a total of 1,113,527 objects in the Belt, with estimates indicating that there may be as many as 1.9 million objects measuring 0.6 mi (1 km) or more in diameter. The Belt ranges in distance from 2.2 to 3.2 astronomical units* (AU) from the Sun and is about one AU wide.

Its total mass is estimated at 5.271021 lbs (2.391021 kg), equivalent to about 3% of the Moon's mass. More than 200 asteroids are larger than 100 km in diameter, including Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, 10 Hygiea, and others. These four asteroids account for more than half of the Belt's total mass, with more than one-third accounted for by Ceres alone.

Despite the common misperceptions, the Asteroid Belt is mostly empty space, with objects spread over a large volume of space. The main population of the Asteroid Belt is sometimes divided into three zones, which are based on what is known as Kirkwood Gaps.

These describe the dimensions of an asteroid's orbit based on its semi-major axis and are named after astronomer Daniel Kirkwood. He first discovered gaps in the distance of asteroids in 1866. These describe the dimensions of an asteroids orbit, based on its semi-major axis. Within this scheme, there are three zones:

The Asteroid Belt may also be divided into the inner and outer belts. The inner Belt consists of asteroids that orbit nearer to Mars than the 3:1 Kirkwood gap (2.5AU). The outer Belt consists of asteroids closer to Jupiter's orbit. The asteroids that orbit with a radius of 2.06AU from the Sun can be considered the inner boundary of the asteroid belt.

The temperature of the Asteroid Belt varies with the distance from the Sun. For dust particles within the Belt, typical temperatures range from -99 F (-73C) at 2.2AU down to -162 F (-108C) at 3.2AU. However, due to rotation, the surface temperature of an asteroid can vary considerably as the sides are alternately exposed to solar radiation and then to the stellar background.

Like the terrestrial planets, most asteroids are composed of silicate rock, while a small portion contains iron and nickel. The remaining asteroids are made up of a mix of these, along with carbon-rich materials. Some of the more distant asteroids tend to contain more ices and volatiles, including water ice. The Main Belt consists primarily of three categories of asteroids:

There are also the mysterious and relatively rare V-type (or basaltic) asteroids that were once believed to have originated from Vesta. However, the discovery of basaltic asteroids with different chemical compositions suggests a different origin, and current theories of asteroid formation predict that the V-type asteroids should be more plentiful.

*The same distance between the Earth and the Sun

As noted, the Belt is populated by millions of known objects, but more than half of its mass is claimed by four planetoids - Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygiea. These bodies range in terms of size, shape, and have varied compositions. As a result of Resolution 5A: "Definition of 'planet'" passed during the 2006 General Assembly of the IAU, these bodies are classified as "minor planets."

Measuringabout 584 mi (940 km) in diameter, Ceres is the largest of the four bodies and is the only planetoid in the Belt (or Solar System) to be massive enough to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium (become spheroid in shape). This led to its reclassification as the only "dwarf planet" in the Belt, as part of the IAU's 2006 Resolution.

Ceres has a mass of around 20.681020 lbs (9.381020kg), roughly 1.28% as massive as the Moon, and is largely composed of water ice, carbonates, and silicate minerals. These are believed to be differentiated between a largely icy outer crust, an interior ocean of saltwater and rock, and a rocky mantle and metallic core.

While it is the most massive body in the Asteroid Belt, Ceres is believed to have formed beyond the orbit of Jupiter and migrated to the Belt. Between its low mass and density, the surface gravity is also quite low: less than 3% that of Earth (0.028 g). Its surface is covered by craters measuring between 10 and 60 mi (20 and 100 km), while the largest measures 176 mi (284 km) across - the Kerwal Basin.

The surface also shows signs of cryovolcanism, as indicated by its bright regions, which appear to be composed of water ice and silicate material. These features bolster the case for action between the surface and an interior ocean, possibly due to impacts on one side that triggered activity in the interior.

Vesta has a mean diameter of 326 mi (525 km), but the diameter varies depending on which axis. In truth, Vesta has a flattened hexagonal shape that measures 355.8 346.2 277.4 mi (572.6 557.2 446.4km). While Vesta is about one-quarter the mass of Ceres - 5.71020 lbs (2.591020kg) - its mean density is higher, resulting in similar surface gravity of around 2.5% (0.025g).

Compared to Ceres, Vesta is believed to have formed in the Asteroid Belt, due to its silicate and metallic composition. These are differentiated between a metallic core of iron and nickel measuring 133-140 mi (214-226 km) and a rocky olivine mantle and surface crust. The surface is also covered in regolith (silicate dust), indicating "space weathering."

At roughly 318 mi (513 km) in diameter and with amass of roughly 4.41020 lbs (21020kg), Pallas is slightly smaller and less massive than Vesta. Based on spectroscopic observations, Pallas' surface is composed of silicate minerals containing trace amounts of water ice, and iron. Its surface gravity is comparable to Ceres and Vesta, at around 2.2% of Earth-normal gravity (0.022g).

Hygeia has a mean diameter of around 269 mi (434 km) and a mass of around 1.921020 lbs (8.751019 kg). Like Pallas, it has a roughly spheroid shape but is not massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium. Based on spectroscopic observations, the surface appears to be composed primarily of carbonaceous materials similar to those found in C-type meteorites, with evidence of past water ice.

To put it simply, the Asteroid Belt is not a friendly environment. Even the largest asteroids are airless, which means that everything in the Belt is exposed to the vacuum of space. Its distance from the Sun places it firmly in the "Frost Line," where conditions are consistentlycold enough for volatile compounds such as water, ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide to condense into solid ice grains.

For dust particles and larger bodies in the Belt, surface temperatures are also very extreme, typically ranging from -99 F (-73 C) at 2.2 AU down to -162 F (-108 C) at 3.2 AU. However, due to rotation, the surface temperature of an asteroid can vary considerably as the sides are alternately exposed to solar radiation and the darkness of space.

Radiation exposure is also a major hazard due to the lack of atmospheres or planetary magnetic fields. This includes solar radiation, which becomes far more intense during solar flare activity, and galactic cosmic rays (GCRs). It is estimated that human settlers would need to burrow at least 328 ft (100 meters) beneath the surface to ensure protection.

Much like the Moon and other airless bodies, bodies in the Asteroid Belt also have significant amounts of regolith. This means that any settlements on or within asteroids will have a "dust problem," where tiny shards of silica will pose hazards for respiratory health, stick to everything, and mess with machinery and electronics. And as always, there is the issue of low gravity.

On all the major bodies in the Belt, the gravitational force is between 2 and 3% of what we experience here on Earth. Everywhere else, the conditions are what is known as "microgravity," similar to what astronauts are exposed to aboard the ISS. According to studies performed on the ISS, the long-term effects include muscle and bone density loss and effects on cardiovascular health and organ function.

Another major issue is the distance between the Main Belt and Earth. As with Mars, the distance to the Belt's minor planets varies considerably as they orbit the Sun. For example, between April 2021 and December 2021, the distance between Ceres and Earth ranged from a maximum of 3.9 AU to a minimum of 1.76 AU. Between July 2022 and March 2023, it will range from 3.6 AU to 1.6 AU.

In short, the range between Ceres and Earth more than doubles during a seven to eight-month period. This means that missions to and from the Belt could only launch during certain windows. While this is more convenient than the 26-month launch window with Mars, the distances are about four times greater - 0.374 AU to 1.67 AU.

For long-term habitation in the Asteroid Belt to become a reality, the settlements will need to be as self-sufficient as possible. But with the right work, the Main Belt could become the mining and manufacturing hub of the Solar System.

Establishing self-sustaining habitats in the Belt requires leveraging local resources to meet the needs of the inhabitants - a process known as In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU). This includes harvesting local water ice to create oxygen gas, propellant, and drinking water; and mining regolith and minerals to create manufacturing materials.

Luckily, the Asteroid Belt has abundant resources, depending on the class involved. C-type carbonaceous asteroids, which account for 75% of the Main Belt, and are believed to have abundant water ice. Several mission proposals have been drafted to harness this abundant resource and use it to advance exploration and settlements efforts in the Main Belt.

Similarly, the settlers will need to engineer bioregenerative life support systems to ensure sustainable living conditions. This would require creating self-sustaining biomes within the habitats that conform to a Terraform Sustainability Assessment Framework (TSAF), which comes down to creating living systems that mimic Earth's.

A good example is a proposal for a "megasatellite settlement" consisting of rotating habitats (Stanford Toruses) in orbit around Ceres. This concept was proposed by theoretical physicist Dr. Pekka Janhunen, a research manager with theFinnish Meteorological Institute and a senior technical advisor Aurora Propulsion Technologies.

As Dr. Janhunen described it, the settlement would bring terraforming to the Belt in the sense of "creating an artificial environment, near Ceres and of Ceres materials, that can scale up to the same and a larger population than Earth has today." The design calls for habitats that rotate to simulate gravity attached to a disk-shaped frame through passive magnetic bearings.

Using local resources, an Earth-like atmosphere could be created within these habitats. This would consist of using nitrogen, water ice, and frozen carbon dioxide from Ceres to create nitrogen gas (as a buffer), oxygen gas, and trace amounts of frozen volatiles. This could be pumped into the habitats to create a sustained atmospheric pressure of 101.325kPa, consisting of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and trace amounts of CO2 and other gases.

Locally-sourced regolith could then be imported and combined with organic molecules to fashion "soil." These would include the high amounts of organic carbon, phosphorus, and other chemicals that are key fertilizer ingredients. The introduction of plants, over time, would enrichen the soil and remove heavy metals, allowing for crops to be grown.

Trees and grasses would be introduced to stabilize the soil and create a water cycle for the habitat. Different habitats could host different types of biomes (grassland, desert, jungle, alpine, etc.) that are interconnected to ensure that the habitat is as "Earth-like" as possible - thereby fulfilling the "terraforming" aspect of the Asteroid settlements.

Similar habitats could be built near Vesta, Pallas, Hygeia, and any other large bodies rich in natural resources. From these habitats, regular missions could be mounted to mine asteroids for their mineral wealth, which could be shipped back to Earth, other planets, or other habitats in space or manufactured into goods on-site.

In his book, Entering Space, famed science communicator and space exploration advocate Robert Zubrin wrote:

"The asteroid belt is known to contain vast supplies of very high-grade metal ore in a low gravity environment that makes it comparatively easy to explore to Earth... These asteroids collectively represent enormous economic potential... For mining purposes, the real action is going to be in the Main Belt, where millions of 1-km class ($150 billion worth of [platinum] class!) objects undoubtedly reside."

The monetary values used by Zubrin here come from the 1987 book Space Resources:Breaking the Bonds of Earth, co-authored by cosmochemist Prof. John Lewis (Univ. of Arizona) and his wife, Ruth Lewis. For example, the pair considered a single S-type asteroid with very little water but abundant metals like nickel, cobalt, and precious metals like gold, platinum, and rhodium.

According to Lewis and Lewis, a small S-type asteroid measuring 0.6 mi (1 km) in diameter would have a mass of about 2.2 billion tons (2 billion tonnes). Of this, they estimate that the following amounts of precious and "strategic" metals would be available:

Based on the market value of palladium metals alone in 1987, Lewis and Lewis calculated that this asteroid would have a dollar value of $150 billion ($371 billion with inflation). When you factor in the current market value(at the time of writing) of the other metals - iron ($27.1 billion), nickel ($745 billion), and cobalt ($1.11 trillion) - the total value of one run-of-the-mill S-type asteroid reached $2.253 trillion - over 10% of annual GDP in the U.S.

Another estimate takes a look at small S-type asteroids - measuring just ~33 ft (10 m) in diameter. An asteroid this size could contain about 1.433 million lbs (650,000kg) of metal, 110 lb (50kg) of which would be precious metals like platinum and gold. Rare, M-type asteroids contain even more metals, mostly iron-nickel, and significant amounts of rare and precious metals.

The largest of these is 16 Psyche, one of the most massive asteroids in the Solar System that is believed to be the iron core remnant of a protoplanet that lost its silicate outer layers (possibly during a collision with another protoplanet). Current estimates place this body's diameter at 157 mi (253 km) and its mass at 51019 lbs (2.2871019kg).

In terms of composition, Psyche is believed to be largely made up of metallic iron, nickel, and gold, with residual silicate minerals. Scientists will know more about its composition when NASA's Psyche mission arrives at the asteroid in early 2026. Nevertheless, current estimates place the value of the asteroid's metals at as high as $10,000 quadrillion.

To give you some perspective, the annual GDP of the entire planet was estimated at $87 trillion, based on 2019 figures. If the asteroid could be towed to Earth tomorrow and its minerals harvested rapidly, the entire market for metals would collapse. The sheer abundance of all the metals it contains would make metals worthless.

However, if Psyche and other metal asteroids could be harvested gradually, they would become a welcome addition to our planet's economy. As for how these minerals would be mined, NASA explored many ideas in two publications: "A Review of Extra-Terrestrial Mining Robot Concepts" (2012) and "Robotic Asteroid Prospector" (RAP) (2013).

In these reports, NASA reviewed concepts proposed in the previous forty years (both crewed and uncrewed) and explored the four aspects of the process - prospecting, mining/retrieval, processing, and transportation. Ultimately, they determined that the challenge would be best handled by robotic machines working in collaboration with human explorers.

"Humans will benefit from the resources that will be mined by robots," it says. "They will visit outposts and mining camps as required for exploration, commerce, and scientific research, but a continuous presence is most likely to be provided by robotic mining machines that are remotely controlled by humans."

They also advised that any attempts to conduct mining missions be preceded by extensive prospecting using space-based telescopes, the creation of infrastructure in space, the construction and maintenance of the robotic spacecraft in space, and the creation of processing facilities where ore could be shipped to.

With little effort, one can imagine what asteroid mining would look like. The mining vessels will be built on a series of "space platforms" located in the Belt. These vessels will be automated and likely controlled by a central AI or "swarm intelligence." The process of prospecting, mining, processing, and shipping will be overseen by human workers in the Belt, operating out of facilities close to their habitats.

Processing will also take place on a series of "foundry" platforms, where the ores are turned into purified metals and maybe even finished products. Shipping vessels will then send these products to Earth, Mars, the Moon, and anywhere else they are in demand. Similar efforts will mine for water ice and organics used by the local settlements, with some being exported as well.

Power will likely be provided by a combination of solar arrays, kilo power nuclear arrays, mini-reactors, and possibly fusion reactors (which could be fueled using Helium-3 mined on the Moon). In time, a thriving economy could be created based on extracting water ice, volatiles, chemicals, and minerals from the asteroids.

This economy could draw settlers from Earth and elsewhere, eventually leading to many habitats throughout the Main Belt. Additional industries, such as tourism and recreation, would spring up in time, and a human foothold in the Main Belt would facilitate missions farther out. This includes Jupiter and its system of moons, Saturn and its largest satellites, and beyond.

Beyond the questions of how and when humans could settle in the Main Asteroid Belt, there's the inevitable question "why"? Why should humans establish a foothold in this region of space? There must be another source of motivation beyond the prospect of wealth and resources, surely? One of the more obvious ones is survival, both for human civilization and Earth.

In 2006, then-NASA administrator Michael Griffin stated the importance of space colonization during an interview with the Washington Post:

"The goal isn't just scientific exploration. It's also about extending the range of human habitat out from Earth into the solar system as we go forward in time. In the long run, a single-planet species will not survive. If we humans want to survive for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we must ultimately populate other planets."

Indeed, the ability to harness the resources of the Solar System and shift the burden of mining and manufacturing away from Earth could very well help us avert climate catastrophe in this century. And as noted public figures like Stephen Hawking and Elon Musk have stated, becoming "multi-planetary" may be the only way to ensure that human civilization won't be wiped out in a single cataclysmic event.

There's also the prospect of growth and diversification. Once again, Zubrin explored this idea in Entering Space, where he claimed one of the most appealing reasons for settling the Asteroid Belt was the social diversity and experimentation it would allow for:

"This will make available thousands of potential new worlds, whose cultures and systems of law need never fuse. Perhaps some will be republican, others anarchist. Some communalist, others capitalist. Some patriarchal, others matriarchal. Some aristocratic, others egalitarian. Some religious, others rationalist. Some Epicuricans, others puritanical. Some traditional, others novel.

"For a long time to come, groups and human beings who think they have found a better way will have places to go where they can give it a try... The rest of humanity will watch and learn from their experiences. That which works will be repeated. So shall we continue to progress"

But perhaps the most compelling reason is the challenge that it represents. The drive to explore, set down in new places, and build a new life is a recurring theme in human history. When it comes to the Asteroid Belt or space in general, there's also the prospect of doing it right this time - without slavery, genocide, and imperialism, like the previous period of colonization and "discovery."

While living in the Asteroid Belt can only come after similar experiments are conducted closer to home - Low Earth Orbit (LEO), the Moon, and Mars - the benefits of settling the Main Belt are clear. Lots of places to settle, abundant resources, a thriving local economy, and a stepping stone to the outer Solar System. Someday, the term "Belters" could be a reference to something real.

"Here in the Belt, we don't believe in 'good-byes.' For us, it's always, 'until we meet again!' For those who live and thrive here, the movement of people and ships is a constant, and we're forever growing and mixing. We hope you take that same spirit with you as you return to Earth, Mars, Luna, and other destinations!

"In the meantime, we hope you enjoy your stay aboard Piazzi, Olbers, Mande, or whatever port-of-call you are destined to before returning home. We remind our passengers that transitioning from low-g to regular gravity can be challenging. Please report to one of the many clinical facilities, or call for assistance, if you are experiencing difficulty walking and standing or are experiencing unusual swelling or pain.

"We would also like to remind our passengers that they will be required to undergo bioscans upon arrival and that the prohibition against taking from the local biome remains in effect. There is much to enjoy aboard our stations, but we ask that you leave it there.

"From all of us here at Ceres and the Main Asteroid Belt, we say: thank you all, and 'until we meet again!'"

See the rest here:
The science of becoming "interplanetary": Could humans live in the asteroid belt? - Interesting Engineering

While Ukraines allied forces are meeting Russias advancing troops in the on-ground and air battle, Ukrainian ministers as well as president Volodymyr Zelenskyy have opened a new front in the fight using technology to rally forces and international support in the countrys favour.

A man sporting a ribbon in Ukrainian flag colours uses a smartphone. AFP

While Ukraines allied forces are meeting Russias advancing troops in the on-ground and air battle, Ukrainian ministers as well as President Volodymyr Zelenskyy have opened a new front in the fight by using technology to rally forces and international support.

Since the beginning of the armed conflict on 24 February when Russia launched a special military operation on Ukraine, Zelenskyy has kept the world updated about what was happening and to relay messages of strength to the Ukrainian people.

Lets take a look at how the Ukrainian administration is fighting the battle on the digital front:

The continuous online presence of the Ukrainian president through social media and digital press conferences is in stark contrast with his Russian counterpart, who has mostly remained quiet or has appeared in pictureslooking solemn.

Also read: Nothing funny about it: Braving Russian invasion, a president who was once a comedian

On 24 February Zelenskyy took to Twitter to inform the world about Russias treacherous attack and compared it to Nazi Germany in World War II.

The following days he continued tweeting about his conversations with allies and how they have extended support.

When Russian forces reached the outskirts of the capital city of Kyiv, Zelenskyy posted a video on Twitter.

"I am here. We will not lay down any weapons. We will defend our state, because our weapons are our truth. Our truth is that this is our land, our country, our children and we will protect all of this," the 44-year-old said in the video, news agency AFP reported.

After initial hesitation from the US and European Union in sending help towards defending Kyiv, it was a breakthrough moment on 26 February as Zelenskyy tweeted, "The anti-war coalition is working!

Almost on an hourly basis, Zelenskyy has updated about the situation and addressed world leaders, thanked them for their support to Ukraine through his Twitter handle.

He also thanked Prime Minister Narendra Modi for support to Ukrainian people.

Not just Zelenskyy but a member of his cabinet, minister of digital transformation of Ukraine Mykhailo Fedorov, has also been actively engaged with people on social media.

According to a report by BBC, Ukraines youngest cabinet member has been waging a digital war against Russia from an underground shelter in a secret location in Kyiv.

On 26 February, as Russian assault disrupted internet services in parts of the country, Fedorov called out to SpaceX founder Elon Musk, asking him to provide Starlink stations to the nations.

Musk readily responded by activating Starlink service in Ukraine.

Also read: How does Elon Musk's Starlink help Ukraine: All you need to know about it

Over the last 13 days since Russia invaded Ukraine, Fedorov has continued to mount pressure on multinational companies to boycott Russia. Many have responded in kind, including Apple, Microsoft, Meta, YouTube, Sony and Oracle.

Ukraines official Twitter account also upped its game after Russia launched an attack on the country by tweeting a caricature of Russian president Vladimir Putin with Hitler.

And when media outlets termed it as a meme, the people behind the Twitter handle had a ready response too.

The Twitter handle has continued to mock the Russian administration with its posts.

With inputs from agencies

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The Art of Twitter War: How Ukraine is using social media to win support against Russia - Firstpost

Jamie and Young Ian cant agree on dealing with the Cherokee in Outlander Season 6, Episode 2. Heres what to expect in the episode.

Now that Jamie has become an Indian Agent, its time to form bonds with the local Cherokee people. Jamie already has some good relations with them anyway, but he needs to strengthen them.

Meanwhile, its time for Baby Fraser to make its arrival. Marsali is going into labor, but this is not going to be the easy birth that Felicite seemed to be. Where is Fergus this time?

The promo and synopsis for Outlander Season 6, Episode 2 give us some idea of what to expect. Heres a breakdown of big storylines.

Heres a look at the promo and synopsis for the episode first. Then well get into our breakdown of everything.

Ian and Jamie butt heads over Jamies reluctance to pass along the Cherokees request for guns. The tension between Fergus and Marsali dissipates as Marsali gives birth to their fourth child. However, the joy is short-lived when a discovery is made.

Jamie is worried about what the Cherokee want

As Jamie goes to see Bird, he learns what Bird wants to gain from this alliance. Its more than just normal trade. He wants guns.

With tensions brewing in the colonies, this request is only natural. However, its not a comfortable request. Could Jamie be arming people who become enemies to the Crown? Thats certainly going to be something that he worries about.

Young Ian wants to help the Cherokee

I love that Young Ian is going to get more focus in Outlander Season 6. It looks like Episode 2 is the start of that. Well see him unhappy that Jamie doesnt really want to arm the Cherokee.

Young Ian knows about time travel. He knows a war is coming, and hes going to ask the time travelers what happens. With the time he spent with the Mohawk, of course he has some allegiance to all Native American tribes. He wants to make sure theyre protected.

Fergus continues to be a concern

When Marsali goes into labor in the promo for Outlander Season 6, Episode 2, Jamie has just one concern. Where is Fergus?

It seems that Fergus is missing a lot more than hes not. Who will have to go out to find him? Whats Fergus going to be like when someone does find him? Will we get that labor scene from A Breath of Snow and Ashes?

Theres a problem with the baby

Claire notes that theres a complication with labor. The baby hasnt moved for hours, she tells Jamie. Even at this point of labor, the baby should still be moving.

Marsali also knows that something is wrong. Yes, pregnancies and labors are all different, but shell know if something doesnt feel right. Claire will listen to her, too. Will this baby be okay? Is something going to happen to Marsali?

Tom wants the surgery after all

Claire offered to treat Toms curling hand. He didnt want the surgery at first, but that changes in Outlander Season 6, Episode 2.

It looks like Claire is going to turn to Malva for some help. Malva is keen to learn about healing, even if the men in her family dont like it. Allen may foreshadow something in his comment about female healers being viewed as witches.

What do you hope to see in Outlander Season 6, Episode 2? Share your thoughts in the comments below.

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5 big takeaways from the Outlander Season 6, Episode 2 promo and synopsis - Claire and Jamie

If youre impressed by Martian rovers and helicopters, wait till you see whats on the horizon.

NASA has unveiled a range of visionary tech that could be used in future space missions.

The projects are the latest members of the Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program, which funds early-stage studies to evaluate their potential.

The new cohort joins an array of innovations that were already in the program.

Heres our pick of the most intriguing ideas.

Project RAMA has proposed a scalable way of exploring the solar system: converting entire asteroids into enormous autonomous spacecraft.

The team plans to use robotic processes to turn asteroid elements into programmed automata.

The idea is to cut the costs of ground launches by manufacturing the tech in outer space.

Shapeshifting is typically found in science fiction, but NASAs betting it could work in space.

The agency has funded a flying amphibious robot that mutates into different devices.

DubbedShapeshifter, the system is comprised of smaller units that collectively morph into robotic balls, flight arrays, and torpedo-like swimmers.

The proposal envisions the machine globetrotting from Titans rugged cliffs to its deep seafloors.

NASA may have found a useful tool for astronomers: a giant shade in space that blocks the glare from stars.

The 100-meter starshade would match the position and velocity of a moving telescope. It could then cast a dark shadow over the meddling star without blocking the light of its planets.

The idea reminds me of Mr Burns building a giant parasol to increase energy demand but the creators say its merely a powerful exoplanet observatory.

NASA has well-documented issues with spacesuits. The current crop is old, cumbersome, and ill-equipped for future missions.

The SmartSuit is an attempt to upgrade these outfits. The spacesuit incorporates soft robotics, stretchable self-healing skin, and integrated sensors that collect and display data to the wearer.

The kits designed specifically for human missions to Mars.

Space trash is becoming a major danger. There are approximately 100 million pieces of extraterrestrial debris that are at least 1-millimeter big. Spacecraft travel at such speeds that even tiny paint flecks can cause damage.

The Brane Craft is a wafer-thin attempt to clean up this trash. The device wraps around orbiting debris and then lowers it to burn up in Earths atmosphere.

The craft is half the thickness of a human hair and looks like a sheet of paper. The creators compare it to an automated spot cleaner in space.

If Elon Musks dream of colonizing the red planet is to become a reality, he will (hopefully) want to make the Martian air breathable.

Ivan Ermanoski, a research professor at Arizona State University, has a proposal that could help: a portable oxygen generator.

The system uses a process called thermal swing sorption/desorption (TSSD) to generate oxygen from the Martian atmosphere. Ermanoski says it uses 10x less energy than the leading current methods.

The concept could be a step towards humans breathing on Mars.

The last proposal on our list involves a technique called Optical Mining.

The project uses concentrated sunlight to turn asteroid materials into rocket propellants. This would then supply spacecraft with affordable and accessible fuel.

NASA believes the system could ultimately help industrialize space.

These devices may never see the light of space, but just one of them could transform the cosmos as we know it.

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7 futuristic space technologies that NASA is exploring - The Next Web

In the January 2022 issue of Science Advances, Chinese scientists announced further evidence that the moon may contain water ice.

The evidence came from data collected by the Chinese Change 5 lunar lander, which touched down on the moons surface on Dec. 1, 2020. Thats good news for astronomers, who care about such seemingly arcane matters. It should be good news for the rest of us as well, as we shall see.

Water is a molecule composed of two atoms of hydrogen bonded to one atom of oxygen.

Many water-seeking spacecraft have orbited or landed on the moon. Scientists designed many of them to detect the hydrogen in water.

There is good reason to do so. Hydrogen loves to bond with oxygen, and the moon has an abundance of oxygen.

Of course, that oxygen doesnt exist in its gaseous, breathable form. The moon doesnt have an atmosphere. Instead, oxygen is bound with other elements to form oxides.

On both the moon and Earth, a common oxide is iron oxide, commonly known as rust. On Earth, another is dihydrogen oxide, commonly known as water.

Change 5s evidence is not conclusive proof for the waters lunar presence because one atom of hydrogen will also bond with one atom of oxygen, forming a group of substances called hydroxyls. Alcohols in their various forms are examples of hydroxyls.

Change 5s data may also indicate the presence of hydroxyls, cousins of water, but decidedly not water.

Humans have sent many orbiters and landers to the moon looking for water, but their tests are all designed to find hydrogen. Such is the difficulty some would say the fatal flaw of looking for water from 238,855 miles away.

So why not just bring back some rocks from the moon and subject them to detailed laboratory tests? Weve done it, and it didnt work.

Apollo 11, the first crewed lunar mission in 1969, and subsequent Apollo missions, brought back rocks that geologists on Earth analyzed for water. The Russians have done the same using robot spacecraft.

Water was consistently detected in small quantities, but the results were tainted.

Rocks from the moon have to be studied in an extreme vacuum to simulate lunar conditions. If a rock is exposed to even a whiff of earthly air, it will absorb water from it.

For that reason, all the Apollo rocks produced suspect results that geologists discarded as evidence.

Why should you care? Water is, after all, the stuff of life, an essential ingredient for its existence on our planet. Biologists say that life was born in the sea. When it moved onto dry land, it carried its water along with it.

Humans are made up mostly of water. An old Star Trek episode refers to members of our species as bags of water, and thats about right. Our skins are designed to hold the water in and keep it from spilling back into the environment from whence it came.

Finding water thus becomes critical for our eventual expansion into the cosmos. We cant carry very much water with us because its too danged heavy and bulky to tote around. If we plan to live on the moon, well have to make it from raw materials or mine it from the lunar soil.

How did the water ice get on the moon in the first place? Astronomers offer three possible explanations.

Scenario 1: Water may be the natural result of the processes that make moons and planets.

But theres a problem. The moon has no blanket of air like Earth, and it has a much lower gravitational pull than our planet. Add the heat from the sun, and water ice turns into vapor and escapes into space.

Much of the water the moon had early in its formation has by now disappeared into the inky void.

However, at the lunar north and south poles, there are places where the sun never shines. According to data gathered by the Lunar Prospector orbiter, most of the moons water is located at the lunar poles, where ice is mixed into moon dirt, called the moons regolith by astronomers.

Half a centurys worth of lunar data seems to replicate the polar findings. However, a set of Earth-based observations lead to an even more startling conclusion.

In 2020, using the Sophia telescope mounted in a Boeing 747 aircraft, astronomers saw signs of water on sunlit areas of the moon.

Scenario 2: Water came in the form of cometary bombardment.

Like all the larger objects in our solar system, the moon is subject to bombardment by comets, which contain a fair amount of water ice. Those comets are zipping along when they hit the moon. The resultant explosions reduce the comets to dust and bury their ice deep in the lunar soil.

In fact, during the period of heavy cometary bombardment four billion years ago, the moon may have had enough water to form an atmosphere and even lakes of liquid water on its surface.

The moon had recently formed from a collision with a planet-sized object and Earth. As debris from the impact coalesced into the moon, it heated to a liquid ball of rock. It was warm enough to melt the cometary. The resulting gases could have formed an atmosphere.

Astronomers like Dirk Schulze-Maku argue that such life-producing conditions could have existed for 500 million years.

Scenario 3: Change 5s Chinese scientists and other astronomers argue that the sun produces the moons hydroxyls and water.

As the sun explodes, it generates a solar wind, a constant stream of mostly hydrogen atoms that strikes every object in the solar system. The hydrogen atoms combine with the oxygen in the lunar soil.

Herein lies a problem. The solar wind also prevents oxygen from binding to elements such as iron to form oxides. Besides, where does the abundance of oxygen come from in the first place?

The answer lies in Earths powerful magnetic field, which generates a long tail called its magneto trail. Japans Kaguya lunar orbiter discovered in 2007 that the magneto trail grabs oxygen from Earths atmosphere and transports it from our planet to the moon.

But what about that pesky solar wind that tends to block the formation of oxides?

The moons oxygen binds with other elements to form oxides when Earths magneto trail partially blocks the solar wind. That condition occurs once a month around the time when we see a full moon on Earth.

Granted, were not talking about much water. Based on the 1998 Lunar Surveyor results, NASA scientists estimated 330 million tons of ice spread out over 25,000 square miles of the lunar surface.

A lake made of all the liquid would cover only four square miles and be 35 feet deep. A cubic foot of lunar dirt might yield a half-gallon of water, and thats enough to sustain a small colony with drinking water.

Based on more recent spacecraft data, the Planetary Society estimates the total as about 600 billion kilograms of water ice, enough to fill 24,000 Olympic swimming pools.

That sounds like a lot, but it makes up only .01 percent of the lunar regolith.

It isnt nearly enough to satisfy the needs of human colonization. The average human on Earth uses about 100 gallons of water a day for drinking, bathing, and eliminating waste products.

The water would have to be mined at the poles from the lunar regolith and then transported, perhaps at long distances, to lunar bases.

A lunar base would have to recycle every drop of the precious liquid, including, ahem, water excreted from the body. Lets just say that lunar colonists would be drinking the same glass of water over and over again, if you get my drift.

If lunar explorers recycled carefully, they might have enough left over to use for other purposes.

Water is, of course, made up of hydrogen and oxygen. By breaking up the water into its component elements, we can produce oxygen to breathe. Also, hydrogen and oxygen make powerful rocket fuel when recombined. Gigantic tanks filled with liquid hydrogen and oxygen fed the Space Shuttles engines.

Separating hydrogen from oxygen requires a considerable amount of energy. Therefore, any lunar base would require a small nuclear reactor or several square miles of solar panels.

Does the moon have enough water to sustain such lunar bases? To find out, NASA is scheduled to land PRIME-1 at the lunar south pole very near a crater called Shackleton.

The mission will drill deep into the lunar regolith looking for water ice.

NASA chose that particular location because a previous mission, the Lunar Reconnaissance Explorer, determined that the bottom of the Shackleton Crater, deep in shadow, may have 22 percent of its surface covered with water ice.

Eventually, lunar bases may become stopping-off points to more distant places like Mars and beyond. And that is reason enough to be excited about finding water on the moon.

Tom Burns is the former director of the Perkins Observatory in Delaware.

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There's water everywhere, even on the moon - Delaware Gazette