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Category Archives: Transhuman News

Sol 0 Mars Colonization-PLAZA – Skidrow & Reloaded Games

Posted: February 14, 2016 at 10:44 pm

ABOUT THE GAME

Sol 0 is a real time strategy game where you establish the first Martian colony. From the first human footprints on Martian soil to a thriving and self-sustaining colony, Sol 0 imagines a near future using technology that could be available within the next few decades.

Title: Sol 0: Mars Colonization Genre: Indie, Simulation, Strategy Developer: Chondrite Games Publisher: Chondrite Games Release Date: 15 Jan, 2016

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Sol 0 Mars Colonization-PLAZA – Skidrow & Reloaded Games

Posted: at 11:42 am

ABOUT THE GAME

Sol 0 is a real time strategy game where you establish the first Martian colony. From the first human footprints on Martian soil to a thriving and self-sustaining colony, Sol 0 imagines a near future using technology that could be available within the next few decades.

Title: Sol 0: Mars Colonization Genre: Indie, Simulation, Strategy Developer: Chondrite Games Publisher: Chondrite Games Release Date: 15 Jan, 2016

Sol 0 Mars Colonization-PLAZA Size: 284 MB -

ONE FTP LINK

DIRECT LINK

Sol.0.Mars.Colonization-PLAZA.iso

OPENLOAD

Sol.0.Mars.Colonization-PLAZA.iso

UP07

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Sol.0.Mars.Colonization-PLAZA.iso

UPTOBOX

Sol.0.Mars.Colonization-PLAZA.iso

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About | Ron Paul MD

Posted: at 11:41 am

Ron Paul has always stood out. He was a star athlete as a Green Tree, Pennsylvania, high-school student, winning state championships in track. He worked his way through Gettysburg College with three simultaneous jobs, and was a straight-A student as well. He earned similar grades at Duke Medical School, and after serving as an Air Force flight surgeon, set up a successful OB/GYN practice in Lake Jackson, Texas, where he delivered more than 4,000 babies.

Dr. Paul began his life-long interest in Austrian economics, libertarianism, and non-interventionism in medical school, and when Richard Nixon imposed price and wage controls, and severed the remaining tie between the dollar and gold in 1971, Dr. Paul determined to become a public intellectual, running for Congress and speaking out and writing in defense of his ideals, winning a reputation as the entirely principled member of the House, and an expert in economics, history, and political philosophy. He was chairman of the Domestic Monetary Policy Subcommittee, and was also known as the one Member who really understood central banking, and a feared opponent of the policies of Alan Greenspan and Ben Bernanke.

Dr. Paul is the author of 10 books: Gold, Peace, and Prosperity, Abortion and Liberty, The Case for Gold, Mises and Austrian Economics, Freedom Under Siege, A Foreign Policy of Freedom: Peace, Commerce, and Honest Friendship, Pillars of Prosperity, The Revolution, End the Fed, Liberty Defined, and The School Revolution.

He ran for president in 1988 as a Libertarian, and in 2008 and 2012 as a Republican, gaining nationwide and worldwide support for the ideas of freedom, peace, and prosperity, especially among the young, despite a media-wide campaign to ignore him, and then distort him. He is looked to as the leader of the freedom movement in a host of countries.

Dr. Paul and his high-school love and wife of more than 55 years, Carol, have five children, 19 grandchildren, and six great-grandchildren. He is the president of the FREE Foundation, president of the Ron Paul Institute for Peace and Prosperity, chairman of the Campaign for Liberty, and distinguished counsellor to the Ludwig von Mises Institute. He has over one million followers on Facebook, and over four-hundred thousand on Twitter.

RonPaulMD.com is Ron Paul's personal and official site.

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Sol 0: Mars Colonization – Episode 2 – YouTube

Posted: February 10, 2016 at 1:44 am

Sol 0: Mars Colonization is a fun little, well, Mars Colonization game. You need to explore the surface of Mars, send your explorers and supplies, and learn to build a colony on the inhospitable atmosphere of the Red Planet. Personally? I like Mars. And I like colonization type games. And it was only $5.99!! The is the best game for that price that I've played in a very long time. Well done! This is a MUST BUY for that price!

From the developers:

"Sol 0 is a real time strategy game where you establish the first Martian colony. From the first human footprints on Martian soil to a thriving and self-sustaining colony, Sol 0 imagines a near future using technology that could be available within the next few decades. Make use of minerals and resources across the Martian surface to expand from the first exploratory rover to an independent frontier.

From Chondrite Games, Sol 0 gives players the ultimate chance to take on the challenges inherent in pushing the boundaries of space exploration and habitation. Grow food, extract water, build habitats, generate electricity, evade unpredictable Martian weather, mine natural resources, and construct increasingly complex and sophisticated colony bases. Challenging simulation Youll be faced with balancing food and water needs, oxygen and energy supplies, natural resource collection, and preparing for weather disasters including meteorite impacts and dust storms. Prioritize the supplies you bring to ensure your colonys survival. Become independent from Earth The technology featured in Sol 0 is inspired by concepts currently being developed and deployed for Martian exploration. From water and mineral extractors, rovers with fine-tuned instruments, and biology labs that cross-breed bacterial strains from Earths extreme environments to increase food production on Mars, the available tools reflect an ever closer reality. Explore Mars and worlds beyond Ice caps, lava plains, and arid equatorial regions each offer distinct challenges to success, and randomly generated maps provide extended playability. Build custom maps using the Sol 0 Map Editor, and share your creations with other players."

Buy your copy on Steam today: http://store.steampowered.com/app/387370

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CPU: Intel i7-5960X Motherboard: Asus X99 Deluxe RAM: 16GB Corsair Vengeance LPX 2800mhz CPU Cooler: Corsair H105 water cooler Graphic card: Asus NVidia GeForce GTX 980 Poseidon w/4GB DDR5 Video Memory (Also optional water cooling on board) Power Supply: Corsair HX1000i (1000Watt) Primary Hard Drive: Samsung 850 EVO 1TB Secondary HDD: Western Digital 2TB Black HDD Case: Cooler Master Cosmos Monitor: Asus 27" Republic of Gamers SWIFT - 1ms response time @ 144Hz Mouse: Logitech G502 Keyboard: Logitech G910

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Human Longevity, Inc. Launches the Health Nucleus, a …

Posted: February 7, 2016 at 9:42 am

LA JOLLA, Calif., Oct. 13, 2015 /PRNewswire/ --Human Longevity, Inc. (HLI), the genomics-based, technology-driven company working to revolutionize the practice of medicine, announced today the launch of the company's first Health Nucleus, a genomic powered clinical research project that has the potential to transform healthcare. The inaugural Health Nucleus is located in San Diego, CA, at HLI's headquarters facility. More Health Nucleus facilities are slated to open in 2016 in other US and International cities.

The Health Nucleus platform uses whole genome sequence analysis, advanced clinical imaging and innovative machine learning combined with a comprehensive curation of personal health history to deliver the most complete picture of individual health.

The Health Nucleus provides a novel approach devoted to exploring, quantifying and beginning to understand as much as possible about individual health and disease risk. Supported by the world's largest genome sequencing center and the leading experts in translating genomics data into clinically relevant information, this platform embodies HLI's philosophies and ideas on how individuals can better understand their health. It is the first center to combine genomics with a complete array of other clinical and biological measures, including:

An experienced team of clinicians, geneticists and bioinformaticians curate these data and produce an integrated report that can inform clients' care. The Health Nucleus team will work hand-in-hand with the individual and their physician. As future risk associations are validated in the HLI database, a web-based portal will be updated with this curated information. The Health Nucleus clinical team is led by Medical Director Pamila Brar, MD, Clinical Geneticist Eric Dec, MD, and Functional Medicine Physician Helen Messier, Ph.D., MD.

"The Health Nucleus is our opportunity to lead the way to genomic health, enabling individuals and their physicians to pivot towards a more proactive, preventative and predictive healthcare future," said J. Craig Venter, Ph.D., Co-founder and CEO, HLI."When I sequenced the first human genome in 2000, I saw the potential for a genomics-driven approach to healthcare, as I uncovered personal health-related insights I would have never otherwise known. The Health Nucleus is a critical step to realizing that potential and providing that kind of insight to individuals worldwide."

"When individuals sign up with the Health Nucleus, they're enrolling in a year of health insight and analysis," said HLI's Chief Medical Officer, Brad Perkins, MD."HLI is combining an advanced series of screens in partnership with primary care physicians, paired with a visit to our Health Nucleus facility, to generate a comprehensive look at personal data that will inform and impact care in new ways."

The Health Nucleus uses the latest technologies from the following companies:

Human Longevity, Inc. (HLI) was founded to enhance the healthy, high-performance lifespan. HLI is building the world's largest, most comprehensive database of whole genome, phenotype and clinical data.From there, HLI's team develops and applies large scale computing and machine learning to make novel discoveries to benefit both Health Nucleus guests, and pharmaceutical companies, insurers and healthcare providers worldwide. This combined power in HLI provides the underpinning for the Health Nucleus reports.

The Health Nucleus is operating under an IRB approved protocol. To learn more, please visit http://www.healthnucleus.com.

About Human Longevity, Inc.Human Longevity, Inc. (HLI) is the genomics-based, technology-driven company creating the world's largest and most comprehensive database of whole genome, phenotype and clinical data. HLI is developing and applying large scale computing and machine learning to make novel discoveries to revolutionize the practice of medicine. A privately held company headquartered in San Diego, CA, HLI was founded in 2013 by pioneers in the fields of genomics and stem cell therapy. HLI will be licensing access to its database, and developing new diagnostics and therapeutics as part of their product offerings. For more information please visit, http://www.humanlongevity.com.

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Talk:Colonization of Mars – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Posted: February 2, 2016 at 4:48 pm

Cost of a Manned Mission?[edit]

Is there any reliable information about the cost of a manned mission to mars? I think it would be useful to include in the article.

For anyone who digs this up, two ideas would be:

Q: How much will sending humans to Mars cost? A: Estimates of the cost of a human Mars exploration program over the years have been wildly disparate, leaving much confusion in their wake. On the high end of the scale was the Space Exploration Initiative proposed by President George H. W. Bush in 1989 at $450 billion; Mars Direct occupies the low end of the scale at roughly $30 billion. - http://www.marssociety.org/portal/c/faq

-Lexspoon 12:51, 20 June 2007 (UTC)

I know many are already aware that both "colonization" and "colonisation" are valid ways of spelling the word. Nevertheless, I thought it would be nice to make a note of it here since I noticed some people changing things to reflect one particular spelling. This may be done for the sake of consistency, but, in that case, it should be noted that the wikipedia article for the term is listed under Colonisation. --Xaliqen

Consideration ought to be given to retitling this entry "Settlement of Mars" rather than coloniz/sation, given the negative connotations the word "colonization" engenders in political discussion. Inevitably -- amazingly -- such diversionary concerns arise when discussing Martian settlement. Ericmachmer (talk) 21:48, 29 December 2009 (UTC)

The possibility of terraforming plays a great part all over the article. However, I'm in doubt about its feasibility. For one thing I believe it takes too long to wait for the results, and nobody is willing to invest a dollar into something that possibly (!) returns in some hundred or may be thousand years. For another, there is good reason Mars having such a thin atmosphere today. The long term stability of a terraformed environment is pretty unlikely. All this about the terraforming thing seems to be science fiction, while the colonization is not. So, how about reducing the idea of terraforming to a small paragraph with a link to the main article Terraforming of Mars? The whole article would be more believable if it concentrates strictly on technology that is in reach of men. -- The Cascade (talk) 08:04, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

Yes, our presence will change the Martian environment, there is no doubt about it. I would not call this unintentional influence terraforming, because it surely does not aim to make Mars resemble Terra. Neither I would expect the unintentional changes to leed even into this direction. No, our presence will not terraform Mars. Probably, our presence will dirtyform it.

Still this is not what I meant. The article describes intentional terraforming. Sure, it is much easier to live on a terraformed Mars, but yet it is not possible with our current knowledge and technology. There are ideas, but nobody knows about the viability. It's too premature. I find it nice to have that article Terraforming of Mars. It is a good article, and I definitely want to keep it, even grow it bigger, concentrate all available info in it. However, the article Colonization of Mars points to a more realistic scenario. It describes many ideas to colonize the planet without the need for terraforming, which is possible with known technology. I wouldn't want to describe terraforming here as inevitable, which is not at all. I find terraforming too fantastic, and my impression is that it makes the article somehow fantastic, too. I'd rather want the article be realistic. -- The Cascade (talk) 14:48, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

Sorry for being rude. And offensive for that matter... first of all the green house gases: Mars has a lots of it. atmosphere consists of >95% CO2. and there is frozen CO2 all over the planet... thats just not the reason why the atmosphere is so thin.

there are mainly two reasons:

1. mars is too small to keep a dense atmosphere. just not enough gravity to keep it.

2. no magnetic field. the charged particles from the sun (sun wind) just "blow" away the atmosphere.

We can think about a solution for (2), like building a superconductor coil around the equator. But because of (1) this wont help in the long run... terraforming mars is a nice dream. but as long as we dont invent a seriously new kind physics, it will be a dream..

Anyway i think it is good to mention the historical ideas about terraforming, just please also mention that it is just nowhere close to be imaginable for someone who studied physics.

135.196.213.146 (talk) 17:17, 25 January 2011 (UTC)

CAN MARS KEEP AN ATMOSPHERE?

Mars surface gravity is high enough to keep all gases except Hydrogen, Helium and Water. Further, water stays in the troposphere, (because of the cold trap), and is not normally lost to thermal escape. Mars HAS lost about 15 meters of water globally, but most of this was from UV light disassociating water into hydrogen and oxygen, with the hydrogen being quickly lost. If Mars was to have an oxygen atmosphere (and an ozone layer), it would keep its water for billions of years. In fact, even with out an oxygen atmosphere, Mars has kept its water for billions of years. Plenty of water is in its ice caps and as permafrost. It has not lost all of its water from thermal escape or any other method.

Scientists have shown that worlds with no magnetic field lose tiny amounts of air from solar wind erosion. This adds up over billions of years. However, it is not something that terraformers have to worry about over hundred of millions of year time scales. (100 million years is far longer than the lifetime of our species.)

Venus has no magnetic field and a solar flux more than 5 times what Mars has but it has not lost its atmosphere. Mercury has quite a strong magnetic field and basically has no atmosphere. The meme that no magnetic field = no atmosphere is far too simplistic. Venus is an obvious disproof of this idea.

Scientists think Mars had a 3 or 4 bar atmosphere early in its life and estimate that about 75% to 80% of this was lost to the solar wind. (The solar wind was ~100 times stronger at the start of the solar system and ~6 times stronger ~2.5 billion years ago.) Since it now has an atmosphere of 1/100th of a bar, where is its air?

In the soil. Lightning and UV radiation will form nitrates. On Earth these are recycled quickly by life. But in some regions like the Gobi desert, the nitrate beds are very deep. (Dozens of meters deep if I remember correctly, don't quote me.) On Mars, most of the nitrogen was not lost, it has been deposited in the soil. Oxygen is too heavy for thermal escape, but will react with rocks or with salts to form perchlorates. Carbon dioxide will form carbonate rocks, be absorbed into CO2 clathrates, and be dissolved in ground water and form ice caps. Further, clays which are common on Mars will absorb carbon dioxide when they get cold, typically 4 to 6% by mass. Most of Mars' atmosphere is in its soils and rocks.

If terraformers brought Mars atmosphere up to 1 bar pressure by dropping comets onto the planet, it would take 2 to 3 billion years of solar wind sputtering to reduce its air pressure to the point where humans still would NOT need a pressure suit. (Tho the pressure would be too low for humans to breath.) (This assumes that the Sun's solar wind continues to decline or at least stays the same.) Claiming that we can't live on a Terraformed Mars because the solar wind will erode the atmosphere in 2.5 billion years when the Earth's biosphere won't survive 800 mi
llion years (because the sun is warming) is silly. Let's focus on the next two hundred to 200,000,000 years and let someone else worry about the time after that.

I'll track down more references for these statements later. Out of time.

http://people.virginia.edu/~rej/papers03/Leblanc01.pdf

"Life and Death of Planet Earth, The: How The New Science Of Astrobiology Charts The Ultimate Fate" by Peter D Ward & Don Brownlee. // They show multicellar life likely won't last 1/2 a billion years on Earth as the sun warms.

http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec14.html

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v272/n5656/pdf/272803a0.pdf

http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1980LPSC...11.2479W

"Mars: A Warmer Wetter Planet" by Jeffrey S. Kargel // Discussed MEGAOUTFLO events in the past when the atmosphere in the soil out gases. Also talks about the 3 to 4 bar early Martian atmosphere & the martian water budget.

Warm regards, Rick. 65.110.28.47 (talk) 15:51, 27 May 2011 (UTC)

I think that the discussion of economics on this page pays too much attention to ways that Earth could economically supplement life on Mars, and not enough attention to how Mars could supplement Earth. It mentions trade between Earth and Mars without mentioning what exactly Mars would have to offer Earth. I think the entire feasibility of Mars colonization rests on Mars having something that Earth does not have, and at this point, I have a great deal of trouble seeing what that might be, except cheap land, which doesn't seem to me to make up for the transportation and development costs that would go into it. Maybe a tourist industry, but I don't think you could build anything bigger than a small city on the basis of the tourist industry. Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.57.230.223 (talk) 18:24, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

I agree with the above. The moon advocates have a myriad of ways to provide services/products to earth in a fiscal timetable, and value for value trades. However, this section on mars economics focuses mainly on earth providing economic benefits to mars and not an even exchange of value for value.Moonus111 (talk) 20:38, 1 October 2010 (UTC)

VIABILITY OF MARTIAN TRADE:

We know Mars has water enriched with deuterium (5 times more so than Earth). which is a viable export for cash. Strategic metals worth $10,000 / kg or more (gold and more expensive metals) can be shipped to Earth for a profit. Also, if there are asteroid bases, it is FAR cheaper to supply them from Mars than from Earth. Robert Zubrin suggested a triangle trade. High tech parts from Earth to Mars. Fuel, light industry supplies and food from Mars to the Asteroids. Asteroids send strategic metals back to Earth.

It is also easier for Mars to send stuff to Luna than it is to go from Earth to Luna. So if we get an industry collecting Helium 3 from the Moon, a similar triangle trade can be set up between the Earth, Mars and the Moon.

It won't be profitable to go to Mars to get Platinum (for example). It would be cheaper to re-open marginal mines on Earth. But the platinum on Mars won't have been picked over for hundreds of years - it will be right on the surface. If there are Martian colonists, they will be able to easily collect iridium, deuterium, rubidium, palladium, gallium, gold, etc, since there will be vulcanism and water created deposits right on the surface. These could be sold for a profit to get high tech, low mass supplies from Earth.

Mars has all of the elements needed for rocket fuel, plastics, industrial metals, computer chips and food. It also has a ~24 hour day night cycle which allows growing food economically. Coupled with Mars' greatest resource (a shallow gravity well) it can supply needed materials to bases in the inner and outer solars system more cheaply than Earth can.

For example: On page 230 of "the case for Mars" Robert Zubrin shows that a mission to Ceres requires 50 times less mass to be launched from Mars rather than Earth. (If the mission requires 1,000 tonnes of supplies it can be done with two launches from Mars or 107 launches from Earth.) This assumes that no propellent has to be hauled to Ceres. If we have to bring return fuel as well, then the Earth based mission becomes even more hopeless. Even if space launches from Mars are 10 times more expensive than Earth, it would still be much more profitable to send supplies from Mars.

Luna has severe disadvantages for a self sustaining colony. It lacks 24 hour day night cycle which is a huge problem if you have to grow plants there. (Plants require a really tremendous amount of energy to grow with artificial light.) Its lack of atmosphere means that plants will die from solar flares unless you have thick glass walls which will crack from the day / night heat stress. It lacks ores since the moon is made up of junk rock (see page 220 ibid for why ores are rare on Luna but likely common on Mars). Elements like H, C, N, P, K & S are all rare or very rare on Luna and must be imported from else where. There is plenty of oxygen and silicon but they are tightly bound to the rock and require a huge amount of energy and hydrogen and carbon to extract.

For references to what I've said above (and far more details), see "The Case for Mars" and "Opening Space" by Robert Zubrin. 65.110.28.47 (talk) 14:40, 27 May 2011 (UTC)Warm regards, Rick.

WHY WAS COMMENTS ON ROCKET SLEDS / ROTATING SKY HOOKS DELETED? Space elevators are far more difficult to build than a rocket sled / sky ramp and or a rotating sky hook. If you are looking for cheap ways for a martian colony to make getting into space both methods are far more practical than a space elevator. Further, a sky ramp can put things into low Mars orbit, which a space elevator can't do, unless you haul rocket fuel up and launch from part way up the the elevator. I suggest that a rocket sled or Mag Lev style sky ramp located on Pavonis Mons is so many more times more practical than a space elevator (especially for a small colony struggling for capital) that the space elevator reference should be considered to be removed as a remote fantasy. I did not site sources in this article, but provided links to Wiki pages where there ARE references. 65.110.28.47 (talk) 14:40, 27 May 2011 (UTC)Regards, Rick

While interesting, I'd not stress this too much until 1) the results are duplicated independently, and 2) a longer time period is tested. 34 days is hardly long enough to ensure the survival of earth-life in Martian conditions. Cumulative radiation affects, for example, could prove disastrous over the course of months/years. Additionally, one good solar flare would probably destroy any life exposed to it in the same environment that this lab used, which due to its lack of a magnetosphere, Mars would be greatly affected by (locally.) I don't have a paper to cite, but discussions with some profs at the local university were not very positive on the long-term success of such tests. Note that hard questions were not asked/answered in the news articles cited, either. HammerFilmFan (talk) 12:20, 17 June 2012 (UTC)

On the 10th of November 2011 R.Schuster called for a citation for the statement: "It is not known if this is enough to prevent the health problems associated with Weightlessness." However it is well known that no experiments were done in which human beings were subjected to fractional g accelerations for weeks or more at a time. The experimental evidence is from free fall in orbit. There does not need to be much documentation to show that we do not know something. So it seems we could just drop the citation nee
ded template on the basis of common knowledge. We should do that or get rid of the statement. - Fartherred (talk) 02:18, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

In a number of edits on the 19th of July, Robertinventor among other things removed the sentences: "It's impossible for any manned mission to Mars to keep to the requirements of the [[COSPAR]] (Committee on Space Research) guidelines for planetary protection. NASA currently follows COSPAR guidelines." He replaced these with a second link to [[Manned_mission_to_Mars#Critiques]] and his comments about introducing Earth organisms to Mars affecting Mars' biologically pristine condition. I have added the comment about NASA following COSPAR guidelines of planetary protection to the [[Manned_mission_to_Mars#Critiques]]. However, this is better addressed directly in the [[Colonization of Mars]] article because it is a direct concern of colonization. The time of a colonization mission cannot be until nations supporting launches to orbit consider that the research question of life developing independently on Mars or not has been sufficiently addressed. Technologies necessary to the colonization of Mars have not been sufficiently developed to have a one-way mission to Mars yet, so we are not waiting just for the COSPAR requirements to expire; but it is a definite road block. There are some advocates of colonization that want colonization started in their lifetimes, as do the backers of Mars One. So this is an item of interest to them. For a neutral point of view, we should not be promoting Mars colonization or minimizing or ignoring the problems. We should present significant facts that are published. - Fartherred (talk) 17:53, 24 July 2012 (UTC)

The article fails to point out how easy it is to colonize mars. It has wind, a steady stream of wind will blow on mars as a faint wistle effect. Mars is a dead planet. It can easily be colonized and solar power is not an issue. Ever here of electro-magentic generators? Its called free energy. They would be quite sufficient.--Asfd777 (talk) 14:49, 15 September 2012 (UTC)

People can get the idea of domes for Mars colonies by looking at many old science fiction magazine covers, but a transparent dome is impractical for Mars. Temperatures down to -143 degrees Celsius just overwhelm the limited heating available from a dome greenhouse. It is more practical for a greenhouse to be a buried cylinder with a portion of the curved roof made of glass and steel exposed to sunlight from mirrors that concentrate it as much as is needed to maintain operating temperature, and the skylight covered by insulation at night. I cannot give a reliable source for this but it is rather obvious to someone who knows a little physics. I would like to see a reliable source for the statement that domes are useful for trapping heat for greenhouses on Mars so that if it comes from a graduate student I can urge that they flunk out and if it comes from a professor I can urge that his research funds be cut back. - Fartherred (talk) 21:23, 14 September 2012 (UTC)

There has been the direct observation of many of the elements necessary for life and this could be supported by citation. However some of the elements necessary for life are necessary only in trace amounts and have not been directly measured yet. We have from the theory of the solar system forming from a cloud of gas and dust that Earth and Mars formed from planetesimals that formed from dust in neighboring regions of the cloud. Therefore the elemental composition of Earth and Mars should have been similar to start with and only limited differences in environment caused changes in composition over geological ages. That Mars is expected to have all of the elements necessary for life can be arrived at by synthesis from sources that I have found, but maybe someone can find the synthesis published. Then it could be included in the article. - Fartherred (talk) 10:14, 6 March 2013 (UTC)

The result of the proposal was no consensus. --BDD (talk) 17:51, 22 March 2013 (UTC) (non-admin closure)

Colonization of Mars Settlement of Mars Reflects modern terminology in the space advocate community without the distracting cultural baggage accompanying the term 'colonization' Relisted. BDD (talk) 16:33, 15 March 2013 (UTC) Ericmachmer (talk) 15:56, 6 March 2013 (UTC)

Comment I think consensus was quite clear, it was to not move. -- 65.92.180.137 (talk) 01:55, 24 March 2013 (UTC)

Settlement of Mars , Mars settlement , Mars settlement should all redirect here. -- 65.92.180.137 (talk) 02:08, 7 March 2013 (UTC)

Why is this useful? It seems to me that any worries about colonization should be addressed in the relevant sections up page. A lot of the info is literally duplicated from above. Also, it contains unsourced SYNTH from Robert Walker. Already have deleted some of the obvious duplication of info and unsourced opinions. The telerobotics paragraph is irrelevant so that was deleted as well. I have half a mind to delete the whole section. Warren Platts (talk) 17:14, 27 June 2013 (UTC)

This article now has an Advocacy section but no balancing Concerns section.

I kept a copy of the original Concerns section in my user space here: User:Robertinventor/Colonization_of_Mars_-_concerns

I expected this to happen as the author said he is nauseated by all the concerns sections on Project Mars and is on a cleanup mission, also to remove all content written by myself on contamination issues. I did not write this now deleted section, just contributed some material to it. Robert Walker (talk) 14:12, 14 July 2013 (UTC)

Please be aware that a Request for Arbitration has been submitted to address the long-standing user conduct issues that prevent the resolution of content disputes. The RFAR is at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Arbitration/Requests/Case#Mars Robert McClenon (talk) 23:04, 14 July 2013 (UTC)

Can we include a more realistic-looking image (like CGI or something like that) as the lead one? The current one looks a little like it's from a children's magazine... --Againme (talk) 19:56, 16 October 2013 (UTC)

___________

Why not just stage something in Arizona, to convey the illusion that there are already people on Mars? It seems that this "childish" picture is sufficient to mislead the uninformed that Mars is already colonized. WikiEditor2563 (talk) 18:42, 5 November 2013 (UTC)

This is in response to a personal email I received from wikieditor Grayfell, who asked that I discuss this here. I need instruction from him or anyone so I can email him personally, I find communicating this way to be overly complicated and incoherent First, I'm writing the final pages of a non-fiction book, which includes several chapters on the colonization of Mars, exoplanets, etc, so I'm somewhat of an expert on the subject, regarding the real potential of a colony on Mars.

Now, the Colonization of Mars is a particularly unique subject, in particular regarding its inclusion in an encyclopedia, because there isnt actually a colony on Mars! And such a thing is certainly not inevitable. EVERYTHING about the colonization of Mars is opinion and highly speculative. The case can easily be made that nothing about this wiki page is encyclopedic! and that this web page is nothing but a bullhorn for the Mars advocates which certainly seems to be the case when some of the edits Ive made are undone before Ive even logged off! I mean, why would anyone be so vigilant about (of all things) the colonization of Mars?

Your sense of how things can be edited is too strict. Even your sens
e of what constitutes an encyclopedic tone is subjective and about which you dont have the last word. You and a few others are way too quick to simply undo others edits, and is arrogant.

First, why do you insist on using the word hospitable in describing Mars? That is entirely propagandistic. In no sense of the word, relatively or absolutely, is Mars hospitable. That might have been a matter of speculation to people in the stone ages, who gazed up in wonder but who couldnt have known any better; to Galileo; or even to early 20th century manbut NOW? given all that we know, in all its degrees of precision?

The sources that you are protecting belie the facts, and have no place in this wiki page. Anyone can write a science article these days and theres no reason their opinion is more relevant than mine. Even science articles are biased and often have a case to promote, and this is especially true for articles about Mars and the exploration of space. Furthermore, there are no sources that say that Mars has been colonized (regardless of unmanned research - which is truly amazing and gives me goose bumps), so maybe the entire Colonization of Mars page should be removed.

For the intro paragraph for this webpage, you need something for a general audience, not bogged down in misleading data. The fact is, a colony on Mars is science-fiction, and there are HUGE obstacles that prevent this from ever happening. this should be conveyed somewhere in the wiki page, preferably at the top, rather than cater to the dreamers and fantasists in some form of agenda.

For example, its FAR better to say that circumstances on Mars in fact would be deadly to all life as we know it (except for perhaps some extremophilic microorganisms) THAN deadly to most life because that implies that there are some forms of life on Mars, which is an OUTRAGEOUS implication, and propagandistic. Things that can be grown in simulated conditions on Earth do NOT change this simple fact! Mars is absolutely NOT hospitable to life and it is propagandistic to suggest that it does or might. Its not encyclopedic to suggest that there MIGHT be life on Mars when after the last 50 years of reconnaissance and actual soil and air analysisNO LIFE HAS BEEN FOUND ON MARS. Its very irrational at this point in the research - given all that we know, and we know a lot, and to a great deal of precision that there might be life on Mars. Thats a serious hang-up that is not supported by science, only by science-fiction fans and fantasists. Science doesnt HOPE or DREAM. Science simply collects facts.

The discovery of life on another planet would be the biggest breakthrough OF ALL TIME. That milestone has not been reached, so to imply that life may exist on Mars because of some dumb simulation here on Earth, or the unrestrained enthusiasm for such, does NOT belong in an encyclopedia. Maybe in Bizarre Fantasy Weekly, but not an encyclopedia.

This wiki page should not be used as a voice for dreamers, fantasists, or space tourism promoters. Now, I should be free to say THIS in the introductory paragraph maybe now you can appreciate how much restraint Ive been exercising.

The intro para to this wiki page should say, or convey, this specific point, because its realistic, not bogged down with misleading data, doesnt promote an agenda, and is entirely, as you say, encyclopedic:

It is absolutely true that This does not preclude the possibility that man might one day step foot on Mars and scout around, but whether or not we ever get to Mars seems less a matter of scientific progress, than the balance of power between sane and crazy which is properly referenced by National Geographic but which you reject because YOU HAVE AN AGENDA TO PROMOTE, which is in complete violation of the Wiki terms of service.

Its not scientific or encyclopedic to HOPE for something, just to state the facts or what can be reasonably surmised where scientific proof of something may be impossible, which seems to be the case, to a large degree, in this arena.

Given what we know, it makes more sense, at this point, to surmise that man will NOT colonize Mars, even though of course theres nothing to stop him from trying. This opinion should be conveyed, somehow, in the wiki page for this topic.

Bearing in mind that if someone wants to learn about Mars they are better served by the wiki page for Mars, because as a planet there is, of course, much to be said. WikiEditor2563 (talk) 20:03, 5 November 2013 (UTC)

As I indicated above, there are really no facts regarding a colonization of Mars, only opinions - much of which is wild speculation - so the idea of "reliable sources" regarding this is somewhat meaningless - since no one's been to Mars! One could challenge anyone who claims to be an expert on this subject. For that reason I don't understand why this webpage is so bulky! There seems to be nothing on the plus side for Mars! So where does the optimism come from?

Even for reliable sources, some things are still a matter of subjective opinion, or involve tremendous amounts of speculation, particularly about a colony on Mars. Such opinions are very biased, it's nave to deny this. This occurs, for example, when a "specialist" says something will happen in 20 years - which gets them off the hook, and implies "let the next generation do it while we still collect a paycheck." Engineers are not magicians, they can't turn lead into gold. There's an incentive to push things ahead 20 years and not a more realistic 50 - or 100. 20 years seems more within reach, so project funding is maintained. Imagine if they said 50 years - funding would stop! When a specialist at NASA says "something can be done" its because if he said "it can't be done" he and the rest of his pals would lose their jobs! So this website CAN'T be a bullhorn for NASA or the Mars advocates. AND IN THIS ARENA, MANY THINGS MUST BE SURMISED, and this Wikipedia page includes a lot of surmising and speculating. Who do you think has their fingers crossed the hardest? NASA. When we read their articles we need to take everything they say with a few grains of salt, and be skeptical of their optimism, because the idea of a colony on Mars IS outrageous, for many reasons (and hence the book I'm writing). For starters, heavy payloads can't land gently on Mars - but that's just a distraction, that's not even one of the REAL obstacles. Maybe these reasons are just more intuitive to me than you, based on years of reading and my own point of view, for which I have 2 science degrees to support, but you have a point of view too, it's hard for ANYONE to be completely objective, we're all rooting for one side or another.

Also, there are a lot of "opinions" on Wikipedia, everything isn't sourced. Everything I've contributed to Wikipedia is objective, restrained, suitable for a general audience, and free of promotion. Even the part about "balance between sane and crazy" but I knew that would be deleted, even though some science articles are describing some things in this arena as just that. The content I've repeatedly posted to introduce this Wikipedia page is both historically correct, succinct, insightful, and captures the spirit of the concept without going overboard.

_____________________ I only

What's interesting is that you haven't substantiated any of your disagreements with me, just condescending threats and warnings.

As I just said to another editor,

So saying that something is "sourced" is, in the end, somewhat meaningless. Which is why I put a higher priority on relevance and readability than the source material. It goes without saying tha
t ALL of my edits are informed through the research I've been doing the last 15 months - and which is ongoing.

And again, regarding the "warring," it takes two to tango. WikiEditor2563 (talk) 19:37, 13 November 2013 (UTC) __________________________

WikiEditor2563, why are you removing sourced, relevant text and wikilinks? [2] --NeilN talk to me 18:30, 13 November 2013 (UTC) _______________________

Note: this editor has now been indefinitely blocked. andy (talk) 22:56, 13 November 2013 (UTC)

I have no particular expertise in the area but as an ever-curious reader here is what struck me about the article:

My two cents anyways. --NeilN talk to me 00:27, 14 November 2013 (UTC)

As far as I can see the article now has no mention of the requirements for planetary protection of Mars. Particularly, increasing evidence of possible habitable regions on present day Mars surface for microbes. This is a recent news story in Nature about the warm seasonal flows now found in equatorial regions: Water seems to flow freely on Mars - Any areas of water could be off-limits to all but the cleanest spacecraft.

Current guidelines for Planetary protection require us to keep Mars free of Earth life so that we can study it in its pristine state. This is an international requirement under the Outer Space Treaty which all space faring countries and countries with space ambitions except N. Korea have signed and nearly all other countries as well.

There is much published on planetary protection issues for rovers on Mars, as of course is an ongoing thing - there is not so much published on planetary protection for future human missions to Mars, although the issues are of course far greater for humans.

This is one article Human Missions to Mars a Challenge for Planetary Protection:Gernot Groemer

There are also general statements in some of the COSPAR documents but no detailed discussion or technical details.

I think the general assumption is that the humans would be sent to Mars only after the current exploration phase is already completed, at a point when requirements for protection can be relaxed somewhat, but there is no set criterion for the end of the exploration phase (which I personally think must surely last at least several more decades, probably longer, before we have a reasonable understanding of Mars by way of ground truth).

On the idea that perhaps it might be a major issue for human missions to address, there is this 2012 space.com article, with remarks from Cassie Conley planetary protection officer. Manned Mars Missions Could Threaten Red Planet Life - which of course is a bit out of date not mentioning the newer 2013 resuults.

Suggestion: to say that

Robert Walker (talk) 14:00, 5 January 2014 (UTC)

Hello everybody! I'm interested in reading about the feasability of a martian space elevator, such as mentionned by the end of the Tranportation section of this article. I already found an articles about the Space Elevators on Earth and the Moon. Now I need data about the martian one. Can anybody find them and add them to the article? Thanks. 80.82.235.62 (talk) 15:28, 4 April 2015 (UTC) A Martian lost on Earth;)

In the section, Economics, there is a link to Economics of extraterrestrial resource extraction which at first sounds pertinent to colonization of Mars, but when one follows the link it leads by redirect to the asteroid mining article which is only indirectly related to Mars colonization. This link is particularly distracting because although it is attached to the words "economic problem" it does not elaborate the economic problem of the Colonization of Mars. - Fartherred (talk) 04:48, 14 April 2015 (UTC)

Magnetosphere does nothing to UV or gamma rays, only to charged particles like beta and alpha rays. Now the sentence is misleading, but magnetosphere is good to mention in context of other radiation. I just don't have clue what is the effect size..? 91.159.81.20 (talk) 01:58, 3 May 2015 (UTC)

See more here:
Talk:Colonization of Mars - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Video – Space.com

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DNA Wikipedie

Posted: at 4:45 pm

Tento lnek pojednv onositelce genetick informace. Ometabolickm onemocnn pojednv lnek dna.

Deoxyribonukleov kyselina, bn oznaovan DNA (z anglickho deoxyribonucleic acid, esky zdka iDNK), je nukleov kyselina, nositelka genetick informace vech organism svjimkou nkterch nebunnch, unich hraje tuto lohu RNA (nap. RNA viry). DNA je tedy pro ivot nezbytnou ltkou, kter ve sv struktue kduje a bukm zadv jejich program a tm peduruje vvoj a vlastnosti celho organismu. Ueukaryotickch organizm (jako nap. rostliny a ivoichov) je DNA hlavn slokou chromatinu, smsi nukleovch kyselin a protein, a je uloena zejmna uvnit bunnho jdra, zatmco uprokaryot (nap. bakterie a archea) se DNA nachz voln vcytoplazm.

DNA je biologick makromolekula polymer v podob etzce nukleotid. Nukleotidy jsou vdy sloeny zcukru deoxyribzy, fosftov skupiny a jedn ze ty nukleovch bz. Informan funkci maj prv bze, jimi me bt adenin (A), guanin (G), cytosin (C) nebo thymin (T). Prvn dv pat mezi puriny, zbyl mezi tzv. pyrimidiny. Dv vlkna DNA se asto spojuj a vytvej dvouroubovici, jej tvar je tak slavn, e se stal kulturn ikonou modern doby.[1] Dvouroubovici DNA tvo dv navzjem spleten roubovice, kad mc opanm smrem (jsou antiparaleln). Mezi protilehlmi bzemi obou vlken se vytvej vodkov mstky, a to ti mezi guaninem a cytosinem nebo dva mezi adeninem a thyminem. Existuj i jin zpsoby uspodn etzc, vymykajc se tradin pedstav dvouroubovice.

Deoxyribonukleov kyselina je stedem zjmu vdc nejen z biologickch obor a byly vyvinuty promylen techniky jej izolace, separace, barven, sekvenovn, uml syntzy a manipulace s n pomoc metod genovho inenrstv. Vechny tyto postupy jsou dleit i pro lkae, kriminalisty i evolun biology DNA je zsadnm materilem v diagnostice nemoc, testech otcovstv, pi vyetovn zloin, pprav plodin s novmi vlastnostmi i teba hledn pbuzenskch vztah mezi organismy.

Deoxyribonukleov kyselina byla popsna roku 1869, kdy vcarsk lka Friedrich Miescher zkoumal sloen hnisu znemocninch obvaz. Zjader blch krvinek ptomnch vtomto hnisu zskal jist mnostv nukleovch kyselin, kter souhrnn nazval nuklein.[2] Na potku 20. stolet Phoebus Levene rozpoznal, e DNA se skld zcukr, fosft a bz.[3]

Ofunkci DNA toho dlouho nebylo moc znmo. Prvn dkaz oroli DNA vpenosu genetick informace pinesl vroce 1944 Averyho-MacLeodv-McCartyho experiment, kter provedli Oswald Avery spolen sColinem MacLeodem a Maclynem McCartym. Sri pokus stransformac pneumokok zjistili, e DNA je genetickm materilem bunk.[4] Dal dkaz pinesl vroce 1952 Hersheyho-Chaseov experiment.

Patrn nejslavnjm milnkem ve vzkumu DNA bylo odhalen jej trojrozmrn struktury. Sprvn dvouroubovicov model poprv pedstavili vroce 1953 vasopise Nature James D. Watson a Francis Crick, pozdj laureti Nobelovy ceny.[5] Vychzeli pitom zrentgenov difrakn analzy, kterou orok dve provedli Rosalind Franklinov a Raymond Gosling a publikovali ve stejnm sle Nature. Dal lnek vtomto vydn pedloil iMaurice Wilkins.[6] Vroce 1957 pedloil vt dob ji slavn Crick srii pravidel, kter se oznauj jako centrln dogma molekulrn biologie a popisuj vztahy mezi DNA, RNA a proteiny.[7] Orok pozdji slavn Meselsonv-Stahlv experiment umonil poznat zpsob replikace DNA vbukch.[8] Genetick kd rozlutili na potku 60. let Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley a Marshall Warren Nirenberg.[9]

Ptomnost nukleovch kyselin, tedy DNA a RNA, je spolenou vlastnost vech znmch pozemskch organism. Veker ivot je zaloen na koexistenci tchto nukleovch kyselin s blkovinami, nicmn nen zcela jasn, jak se vztah mezi DNA a blkovinami vyvinul. Podle nkterch hypotz nejprve existovaly blkoviny a a nsledn vznikly nukleov kyseliny, nicmn nejvce pznivc m zejm v souasnosti pedstava, e prapvodn ltkou byla nukleov kyselina, kter byla schopna biologick evoluce. Podle teorie RNA svta vak hlavn roli hrla nejprve spe RNA a teprve poslze pejala hlavn roli DNA.[10] Doklady ve prospch takovch hypotz jsou vak vdy nepm, protoe nejsou k dispozici dostaten star vzorky DNA. ivot vznikl ji ped nkolika miliardami let, jene u po nkolika destkch tisc let kles mnostv DNA na setinu pvodnho stavu. Studie v asopise Nature z let 2000 a 2002 nicmn popisuj nlez a 450 milion let starch vzork bakteriln DNA uchovanch v solnch krystalech,[11][12] dle existuje i ada dalch, vce nebo mn spolehlivch studi.

Stavbu DNA je mono zkoumat na nkolika rovnch. Poad nukleotid vlinernm dvouvlkn je zleitost tzv. primrn struktury. Sten vlkna do dvouroubovice se oznauje jako sekundrn struktura DNA. Konen pod tzv. tercirn strukturou se rozum obvykle nadroubovicov vinut, kter usnaduje kondenzaci DNA.

DNA vlastn nen nic jinho ne velmi dlouh linern etzec nukleotid. Napklad uvnit kadho virionu planch netovic se nachz DNA odlce 193 mikrometr, kruhov DNA uEscherichia coli m dlku 1600 mikrometr (1,6mm), lidsk genom je rozloen do 23 linernch molekul DNA (v haploidnm stavu) ocelkov dlce 1 metru.[13] Nukleotid je zkladn stavebn jednotkou vech molekul DNA; existuj pitom tyi zkladn typy nukleotid, je se vDNA pirozen vyskytuj. Tyto tyi nukleotidy (dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP) se navzjem li typem piven nukleov bze, j me bt pedevm adenin, guanin, cytosin i thymin.[pozn. 1] Dleit je, e kad nukleotid m ti dleit stavebn sousti:

Primrn struktura DNA se d znzornit jako linern ada nukleotid nebo teba jako ada psmen, kter odpovdaj duskatm bzm vtchto nukleotidech. Dle je dleit, e DNA je smrovan (direkcionalizovan), tzn. daj se jednoznan odliit oba konce. Smr vlken se oznauje prv podle orientace deoxyribzy vnm, tedy: smr 3'5' a opan smr 5'3'. Podle konvence se poad nukleotid zapisuje smrem 5'3' (nap. TACGGACGGG AGAAGCGCGC GGGCGGGCCG je prvnch 30 z3675 nukleotid tvocch pepisovanou st genu pro lidsk alfa-tubulin[15]).

Vroce 2011 se objevila zprva oexistenci bakteri GFAJ-1, kter dajn ve sv DNA obsahuje msto fosftovch skupin arseninany.[16] Hypotza byla definitivn vyvrcena v r. 2012.[17][18][19]

Deoxyribonukleov kyselina (DNA) me existovat jako samostatn jednovlknov molekula (tzv. ssDNA), nicmn velmi asto vytv vcevlknov struktury, kter jsou sloen znkolika etzc spojench vodkovmi mstky. Vodkov mstky jsou jednm ztyp pomrn slabch vazebnch interakc, mezi dvma i vce vlkny DNA jich vak me vzniknout obrovsk mnostv; vsledn vcevlknov struktura tak je pomrn stabiln. Typickou formou takovho vcevlknovho uspodn DNA je dvouroubovice, notoricky znm molekula DNA (pipomnajc stoen ebk) tvoen dvma linernmi etzci. Aby vznikla pravideln struktura svelkm mnostvm vodkovch mstk, je douc, aby se vedle sebe vpli ebku vyskytovaly vdy urit nukleov bze, kter spolu ve sprvnm prostorovm uspodn vytv nkolik vodkovch mstk. Vtypickm ppad (ne vak vdy) se nukleov bze spojuj navzjem sodpovdajc bz podle jednoduchho kle:

Jedn se otzv. komplementaritu bz, zn vychz vzjemn komplementarita obou vlken DNA. Vdy je na urit pozici vmolekule jeden nukleotid zdvojice a vprotjm vlkn druh znich. Takto se uchovv vkadm zvlken tat informace, i kdy jedno z vlken je negativem vlkna druhho podle jednoho vlkna je mon piazenm komplementrnch bz vytvoit vlkno druh. Pomr AT a GC pr vmolekule DNA je velmi rzn: tzv. obsah GC se pohybuje ubakteri od 25 do 75%, usavc vrozmez 3946%.[20]

Existuje cel ada dalch monost, jak pomoc vodkovch mstk sprovat bze, nebo atom schopnch podlet se na vzniku vodkovch vazeb je na molekulch purin ipyrimidin cel ada. Samostatnou kapitolou je tzv. hoogsteenovsk provn pojmenovan podle Karsta Hoogsteena, kter je v60. letech 20. stolet jako prvn popsal.[21] Jinou monost je tzv. wobble provn, kter umouje sporn rozeznvn kodon pomoc tRNA molekul. Pi wobble provn me napklad guanin vytvet vazbu suracilem; nkdy je rekrutovn inosin, jen m velmi obecn vazebn schopnosti a je schopen vzat se na C, Aa U.[22]

Vdrtivm procentu ppad se DNA za bnch podmnek uchovv ve form pravotoiv dvouroubovice. Dvouroubovice DNA je tvoena dvma vlkny DNA, kter se obt kolem spolen osy a interaguj spolu. Vlkna jsou tzv. antiparaleln, tzn. smuj opanmi smry[23] zatmco jedno vlkno meme jednm smrem popsat jako 5'-3', druh je ve stejnm smru 3'-5'. sla 3' a 5' oznauj sla uhlku na deoxyribze, na kter se upnaj fosftov skupiny vcukr-fosftov koste DNA. Mezi bzemi vrmci jednoho patra dvouroubovice plat pravidla Watson-Crickovsk komplementarity.

Existuje nkolik tzv. heliklnch forem (konformac) DNA, kter se li celou adou parametr. Typick Watson-Crickovsk pravotoiv dvouroubovice (tzv. B-DNA) je nicmn zcela pevaujc a ostatn formy (zejmna pravotoiv A-DNA a levotoiv Z-DNA) se sice mohou vyskytovat ivpodmnkch iv buky, nicmn spe vzcn a jen za specifickch okolnost.[24][25][26]

Vobecnm povdom DNA tvo dvouroubovici, nicmn existuj ijin zpsoby uspodn. Nkter se vyskytuj ivbukch (in vivo), jin jsou spe laboratorn zleitost. Mnohdy se vyuv neobvyklch provacch mst na molekulch bz. To je ppad tzv. G-kvartet, tyvlknovch sek DNA vtelomerickch oblastech chromozom, vnich do kruhu pruj tyi guaninov bze.[27] Co se te trojroubovice DNA,[28][29] mon doasn vznik pi tzv. crossing-overu;[30] laboratorn me bt trojvlknov struktura pipravena nap. zvlken poly(A) a polydeoxy(U).[31]

DNA se tak me vtvit a vznikaj nap. tvlknov i tyvlknov spojen. Vnkterch ppadech dvouroubovicov DNA na jednom svm konci lokln denaturuje a na uvolnn konce se pipoj tet etzec vprosted buky by tato struktura mohla vznikat pi crossing-overu, pokud nedolo kreplikaci vjednom zgenom.[32] Jindy takto vlastn denaturuj dv dvouroubovice a vzjemn se komplementrn pilo, m vznik tyvlknov spojen. Vppad crossing-overu se jedn oznm Hollidayv spoj, kter umouje vlastn vmnu homolognch vlken.[33] Pi replikaci DNA i pi oprav DNA mohou vtven vznikat tak. Vlaboratoi nicmn vznikaj jet mnohem fantastitj prostorov struktury DNA byly vyrobeny nap. krychle i osmistn sloen cel pouze zDNA molekul. Tyto a dal syntetick struktury DNA jsou vcentru zjmu DNA nanotechnolog.[1]

Genom, tedy souhrn DNA vbuce, nen pouhou zmt dvouroubovicov DNA na vych rovnch je mon pozorovat komplikovan vinut a etn interakce sbunnmi blkovinami. Zcela typick je tzv. nadroubovicov vinut (supercoiling), tedy dodaten roubovicov vinut ji existujc dvouroubovice.[34] Nadroubovicov vinut se d zjednoduen pedstavit tak, e drme vkad ruce jeden zobou konc provzku a postupn na jednom konci provzek kroutme. Vznikl napt se opt uvoln (relaxuje) jen tehdy, pokud uvolnme jednu ruku. Dvouroubovice je vak stoen ji ve svm relaxovanm stavu (jedna otka kadch cca 10 pr bz), a tak meme rozliit, zda se nadroubovice vine stejnm smrem, jako dvouroubovice (tzv. pozitivn supercoiling), nebo smrem opanm (negativn supercoiling, uvoluje DNA). Nadroubovicov vinut m celou adu dleitch funkc a regulanch rol;[35] vdnm ppad se nejedn pouze oanomlii ve struktue.

DNA se vbuce dle organizuje do mikroskopicky pozorovatelnch tvar znmch jako chromozomy. Ubakteri je zejm systm kondenzace DNA do (obvykle jedinho) chromozomu ponkud mn propracovan a nap. uEscherichia coli zahrnuje nkolik protein, kter jsou schopn udrovat nadroubovicov vinut a vytvet ostr ohyby vlkna DNA.[36]Eukaryotick organismy, jako je teba lovk, maj velmi komplikovan sbalenou DNA. Souvis to sdlkou jejich DNA nap. lidsk genom m na dlku dva metry, pitom bunn jdro m na dlku nkolik mikrometr. Dvouvlkno DNA se nejprve nabaluje na bazick proteiny znm jako histony; DNA nabalen na osm histon vytv tzv. nukleozom, a tak na tto rovni DNA vypad jako ada korlk (nukleozom) na provzku (DNA). Tyto korlky se vak obvykle jet st do 30 nanometr tlust roubovice.[37] Na vzniku chromozom se podl jet vy rovn sbalen DNA, kter jsou vak mn prostudovan a vznikaj jen vuritch fzch bunnho cyklu.

DNA je polymern sloueninou svysokou molrn hmotnost. Molrn hmotnost zvis na dlce DNA a zhruba plat, e skadm nukleotidem stoup molrn hmotnost o330g/mol, vppad dvouvlknov DNA na jeden pr bz pipad asi 650g/mol.[38] Deoxyribonukleov kyselina je zporn nabit (dky fosforenanovm skupinm), a je tedy polrnho charakteru. Dky tomu je rozpustn ve vod, naopak vethanolu se sr (nebo dochz kvyvzn zpornch nboj).[39] Po vysren m DNA blou barvu.[40] Izolovan DNA zaujm dvouroubovicov uspodn, to je vak mon rozruit vprocesu denaturace. Typicky se denaturace provd zvenm teploty, ale denaturaci zpsobuje inzk iontov sla roztoku nebo siln zsadit prosted. Naopak kysel prosted nen vhodn, protoe dochz khydrolze glykosidovch vazeb mezi cukrem a bz.[41] DNA absorbuje vUV oblasti sabsorpnm maximem pi vlnov dlce 260 nm. Pi denaturaci DNA se absorbance vtto oblasti zvyuje tomuto jevu se k hyperchromn efekt.[42] Je to dno tm, e na absorpci se v nejvt me podlej bze DNA, kter jsou v dsDNA "schovan" uvnit dvouroubovice. Po denaturaci dochz k "obnaen" bz, kter tak mohou lpe absorbovat UV zen.

Poloas rozpadu DNA in dle studia kosternch nlez asi 521 let.[43] DNA je povaovna za stabiln molekulu, co vynikne zejmna pi srovnn s RNA jakoto druhou vznamnou nukleovou kyselinou. V molekule DNA nen na 2' uhlku OH skupina u RNA tam tato reaktivn skupina je a zpsobuje ni stabilitu RNA.[44] DNA se v laboratoi dlouhodob skladuje pi 20 nebo 70C, kde vydr i nkolik let. Pi teplot 4C v TE pufru vydr nkolik tdn.[45] Uvnit tl ivch organism vak DNA mus snet i pomrn vysok teploty, a pesto vydr. Krajnm ppadem jsou hypertermofiln organismy, kter ij i pi teplotch kolem 100C. Jejich DNA el jak riziku denaturace, tak i termodegradaci (rozpadu pevnch chemickch vazeb). Pesto ij a mimo opravnch mechanism k tomu zejm pispv i nadroubovicov vinut a tak optimln iontov sloen cytoplazmy.[46]

Pro DNA jsou vak dle typick inkter vlastnosti, kter ji do jist mry odliuj od bnch chemickch ltek. Vbuce je napklad mon replikovat DNA, tedy vytvet jej kopie. Vcemn kad bunn dlen vyaduje zmnoen genetick informace, aby j vkad buce bylo stle konstantn mnostv. Vprbhu procesu se oddl etzce matesk DNA a oba slou jako nvod (tzv. templt) pro tvorbu druhch vlken vrmci obou nov vznikajcch dvouroubovic. Ty jsou nsledn napl tvoeny pvodn DNA a napl nov dosyntetizovan cel proces je semikonzervativn. Kdalm zajmavm vlastnostem DNA vbukch pat monost opravovat DNA, co jet dle vylepuje (u tak pomrn precizn) penos genetick informace.[47] Bylo by mono najt mnostv dalch pozoruhodnch vlastnost DNA, vesms probhajcch vbuce za pomoci specilnch enzym.

DNA je nositelkou genetick informace vech ivch organism vpravm slova smyslu, ale imnoha vir. VDNA je zapsna sekvence vech blkovin a penesen je genetickou informac podmnna existence vech biomolekul a bunnch struktur (kjejich tvorb jsou poteba blkoviny).[48] Schopnost ukldat a penet genetickou informaci je jednou zfundamentlnch vlastnost ivota.[48] Bez DNA buky vydr t jen omezenou dobu; napklad lidsk erven krvinky pi svm zrn vyvrhuj jdro, a protoe pak nejsou schopn vyrbt nov blkoviny a udrovat buku, jsou po nkolika mscch pokozeny a mus se zobhu odstraovat.[49] Nkter viry jsou sice schopn uchovvat svj genetick materil vpodob RNA (tzv. RNA viry), jene RNA genomy nepodlhaj opravnm mechanismm a rychle mutuj, a proto maj limitovanou velikost.[50] ivot, tak jak ho znme, je proto zvisl na DNA.

Konkrtn uloen DNA vbuce zvis na pslunosti organismu kjedn zdvou zkladnch skupin organism. Bakterie a archea (souhrnn prokaryota) maj DNA obvykle uloenu voln vcytoplazm. Obvykle vznik pouze jist jadern oblast, tzv. nukleoid. Mimo to ada bakteri vlastn imal kruhov molekuly DNA, tzv. plazmidy, kter umouj mimo jin horizontln vmnu genetick informace. Zbyl organismy, tedy nap. lovk, ale irostliny, ivoichov i prvoci, maj DNA uloenu pedevm vbunn jde. Dle vak se DNA nachz vnkterch eukaryotickch organelch, jmenovit vmitochondrich a vplastidech, pokud je buka vlastn (jev zvan mimojadern ddinost).

Informace nesen sekvenc nukleotid vDNA se oznauje jako genetick informace. Na kad nukleotidov pozici se nachz jedna ze ty bz (A, C, G i T), co znamen, e sekvence odlce n me nabvat 4n stav.[51] Pro DNA dlouhou pouhch 10 nukleotid existuje tedy teoreticky 410= 1048576 kombinac. Lidsk genom (souhrn lidsk jadern DNA) pitom obsahuje 3,1 miliardy (pr) bz.[52] Nejvy informan hodnota se pitom vgenomu objevuje vmstech, kde sdl tzv. geny, kter zaznamenvaj informaci pro tvorbu RNA a potamo ivech blkovin. Informace pro tvorbu blkovin je zaifrovna pomoc tpsmennho kdu znmho jako genetick kd. Kad trojici bz vDNA toti uprotein-kdujcch gen odpovd urit aminokyselina. Aminokyseliny jsou zkladn stavebn kameny blkovin, take je vlastn genetick informace jakmsi nvodem na vrobu blkovin. Genetick informace je uplatovna podle tzv. centrlnho dogmatu molekulrn biologie. DNA je nejprve pepisovna vRNA (obvykle tzv. messenger RNA), nae je tato RNA pouita jako vzor pro tvorbu blkovin. Prvn zmnn krok se jmenuje transkripce, druh translace.

Velk st genomu mnoha organism vak nen soust dnho genu a dokonce se ani nepepisuje v RNA. Role tto tzv. nekdujc DNA je v mnoha ppadech neznm; nkdy vak pomh regulovat spoutn a vypnn okolnch gen.[53] Velk st nekdujc DNA dle souasn rovn znalost nem dnou konkrtn funkci a oznauje se prost jako junk (odpadn) DNA.[54] st tto odpadn DNA vak podle vsledk projektu ENCODE ve skutenosti kduje rzn krtk regulan RNA; celkem se odhaduje, e 1020% genomu m dky tmto RNA vznamnou regulan funkci. V tsnm okol tchto regulanch sekvenc se tak podle ENCODE celkem nachz a 95% lidskho genomu.[55][56]

Vcel ad ppad je douc izolovat zbunk i zvirovch partikul jejich DNA. Existuje samozejm cel ada metod extrakce DNA, nicmn uvech je nutn zskat dostaten mnostv biologickho materilu, uvolnit DNA a oddlit ji znadmolekulrnch struktur, nae je nutn vzorek peistit a ppadn zahustit.[57] Dleitm krokem je uvolnn DNA zbunk, kter se uivoinch bunk provd pomoc detergent (povrchov aktivnch isticch ltek), je rozruuj membrny. Ubunk sbunnou stnou je to komplikovanj a je nutn nasadit teba lysozymy (na bakteriln bunnou stnu) i mechanickou degradaci. Co se te peiovn bunnch extrakt, obvykle je nutn se zbavit blkovin, kter pedstavuj hlavn kontaminaci vzork. Je mon pout protezy, ale mnohdy se proteiny sr fenolem a chloroformem, zatmco nukleov kyseliny zstanou vroztoku a je mon je pak vysret teba ethanolem.[58]

Po izolaci DNA nsleduje asto separace (oddlen) poadovanch druh molekul. Me bt douc oddlen teba plazmid od genomov DNA bakteri, co se dl pomrn jednodue centrifugac pi vhodn nastavench parametrech, obvykle pomoc denaturace a nsledn renaturace.[58] Pro jemnj rozdlovn podle velikosti ipodle topologie DNA se asto pouv elektroforza na agarzovm (i vppad velmi malch molekul na polyakrylamidovm) gelu. Vppad extrmn velkch fragment DNA se uv tzv. pulzn gelov elektroforza. Zgelu je mon nsledn DNA pevst na nitrocelulzovou membrnu pomoc tzv. Southernova penosu. Dal metodou dlen DNA je centrifugace vhustotnm gradientu, obvykle vgradientu chloridu cesnho tato metoda oddluje zejmna fragmenty, je se li zastoupenm bz (obsahem GC).[59]

Byl vyvinut nespoet zpsob, jak obarvit DNA a to jak pmo vbuce, tak iDNA izolovanou vlaboratornm skle. Pouvaj se asto vlaboratoch ve chvli, kdy je nutn nap. velektroforetickm gelu i pmo ve fixovan buce zvraznit DNA. Ke znmm takovm barvivm pat (bez logick nslednosti): SYBR Green, YOYO-1, TOTO-1, TO-PRO, SYTOX Green, ale iklasick ethidiumbromid a propidiumjodid, akridinov oran, rzn Hoechst barviva i teba DAPI.[60] Kvelmi specifickm barvcm metodm pat fluorescenn in situ hybridizace (FISH), kter umouje navzn fluorescennch sond na konkrtn sekvenci DNA.[61]

Sekvenovn DNA je souhrnn termn pro biochemick metody, jimi se zjiuje poad nukleovch bz vsekvencch DNA.[62] Prv poad bz je princip zakdovn genetick informace, a proto je vcentru zjmu biolog. Pvodn a po dlouh lta pevaujc metodou bylo tzv. Sangerovo sekvenovn, kter vyuv speciln chemicky upravench nukleotid, je jsou pomoc DNA polymerzy zaazovny suritou pravdpodobnost do prodluujc se DNA tm blokuj dal polymeraci a vsledn produkt je mon detekovat pomoc elektroforzy. Vsouvislosti se snahou zrychlit a zlevnit sekvenovac proces byla vyvinuta cel ada sekvenanch metod nov generace. K tm pat nap. pyrosekvenovn a pbuzn metody. Studie Zhang et al. 2011 uvd pt modernch metod, je jsou komern dostupn: Roche GS-FLX 454 (454 sekvenovn), Illumina (Solexa), ABI SOLiD, Polonator G.007 a Helicos HeliScope.[63]

Existuje icel ada postup, jak si pipravit i namnoit konkrtn molekulu DNA. Jednou zmonost je chemick syntza DNA, pi n dochz ksestavovn krtkch oligonukleotid, a to postupnm azenm nukleotid za sebou. Vtypickm ppad vak ji je urit mnostv DNA kdispozici a je douc ho pouze zmnoit tak, aby vechny kopie mly pokud mono totonou sekvenci. To se asto dl bu pomoc klonovn DNA nebo metodou polymerzov etzov reakce.[64]

Vdeck pokrok v oblasti genetiky zpsobil boom v mnoha oblastech lkask diagnostiky. Napklad v bakteriologii, virologii a parazitologii se uplatnily metody, je umouj v napaden tkni detekovat DNA pochzejc z mikroorganism, je tuto tk napadly. To se dl bu pomoc rznch DNA prb schopnch se specificky vzat na uritou sekvenci typickou pro danho parazita, nebo nap. cestou namnoen DNA pomoc polymerzov etzov reakce a nslednm sekvenovnm tm je mon zskat sekvenci DNA patogennch organism, j mikrobiologov srovnaj s databzemi patogennch kmen. Tyto pokroil molekulrn metody se uplatuj nap. pi identifikaci tko kultivovatelnch bakteri i pi urovn cel ady virovch i parazitrnch onemocnn.[65]

Soust diagnostick prce je vak i studium lidsk DNA uplatuje se napklad v rakovinn terapii[66] i pi diagnostice nkterch genetickch onemocnn. Sv msto ji molekulrn metody naly v prenatln diagnostice chorob, nap. ze vzorku plodov vody.[67] Dal testy se rutinn provd z kapky krve novorozenc. Testy DNA v rmci genetickho poradenstv vak dnes mohou pomoci i prm, je teprve dt plnuj. Je to vhodn tehdy, vyskytuje-li se v rodinn historii njak genetick onemocnn. Dnes jsou genetick testy dostupn vem zjemcm a je mon o sob zjistit celou adu informac od tch zejmch (barva o) pes rzn zajmavosti (atletick vlohy) a po vn daje (nchylnost k rakovin atp.).[68]

Nkter oblasti nap. lidsk jadern DNA jsou velmi promnliv a lovk od lovka se vnich tm vdy li. Ztohoto dvodu je DNA vkriminalistice a vforenznch vdch neocenitelnm zdrojem informac. Repetitivn sekvence znm jako VNTR i STR pat mezi ty nejastji studovan. Studium VNTR repetic vyaduje relativn velk mnostv DNA, a proto se vyuv zejmna tehdy, mme-li kdispozici vzorek krve (nap. utest otcovstv). Obvykle se testuj metodou RFLP (jen zkoum polymorfismus dlky restriknch fragment). Vkriminalistice naly vt vyuit tzv. STR (ili ~mikrosatelity). Pravdpodobnost, e dv osoby budou mt jednu STR oblast shodnou, je pro danou variantu nap. 1:83, co by nebylo pli pesvdiv, a proto se pouv obvykle 13 marker, kter se vyhodnocuj zvl a vzjemn pozitivn vsledek dvryhodnost testu mnohonsobn zvyuje. Prvn pouit DNA vkriminalistice se datuje do roku 1986 a dolo knmu vrmci soudnho zen vAnglii. Testovn STR oblast se vak dnes prosazuje ivurovn otcovstv.[69]

Vsouasnosti je lidstvo schopn provdt clen zmny vgenetick informaci (vpoad nukleotid vDNA) a ovlivovat tm nkter vlastnosti organism. Tyto tzv. genetick modifikace zpsobily revoluci vcel ad biotechnologickch odvtv a umouj nap. prmyslovou produkci hormon, srecch faktor pro hemofiliky, enzym uvanch vpotravinstv a nkterch vakcn. Vsledkem genetickho inenrstv jsou irzn transgenn plodiny, nap. ty odoln kherbicidm.[70] VEvropsk unii je zgeneticky modifikovanch plodin povolena pouze Bt kukuice,[71] kter nese gen cry pochzejc zpdn bakterie Bacillus thuringiensis. Tento gen zpsobuje, e je rostlina pro sv hmyz kdce jedovat.[72]

V neposledn ad se studium sekvenc DNA uplatuje v tdn organism podle jejich pbuznosti, tedy v oboru biologie znmm jako fylogenetika. Jednou z prvnch krk v tomto oboru byla v 60. letech studie, kter srovnvala sekvenci genu pro cytochrom c u rznch organism: vsledky jsou v podstat intuitivn, zatmco impanz m sekvenci tohoto genu s lovkem zcela shodnou a makak rhesus se li pouze jedinou nukleotidovou zmnou, ps gen pro cytochrom u se od lidskho genu li na 13 mstech a kvasinkov gen dokonce na 56 pozicch. Na zklad tchto informac si lze udlat obrzek o pbuzenskch vztazch mezi organismy. V souvislosti s rozmachem sekvenovn je dnes k dispozici obrovsk mnostv sekvenc DNA cel ady organism a k jejich analze se pouvaj rzn sofistikovan nstroje, jako napklad metoda parsimonie nebo metoda maximln pravdpodobnosti. Dnes je mono i odhadnout as, kter dl v evolun historii libovoln dva druhy metoda k tomu uvan opt pracuje se sekvencemi DNA a oznauje se jako molekulrn hodiny. Pomoc fylogenetickch pstup je mono odpovdat na celou adu dalch otzek, namtkou jak vztah maj neandertlci k dnenm lidem, jak se mezi jednotlivmi nemocnmi virus HIV a podobn.[73]

V tomto lnku byl pouit peklad textu z lnku DNA na anglick Wikipedii.

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China banks on gene power firms for precision medicine …

Posted: January 31, 2016 at 7:41 pm

Home Asia Unhedged China banks on gene power firms for precision medicine

By Asia Unhedged on January 6, 2016 in

(From Caixin Online)

By staff reporter Wang Qionghui

The Chinese government is powering a homegrown precision medicine initiative aimed at improving patient treatment for chronic ailments such as cardiovascular disease, cancer and diabetes.

Human genome

Officials have declared precision medicine a customized form of health care based on genome-sequencing technology as one of the nations foremost science and technology projects under the 13th Five-Year Plan for the 2016-20 period.

A document published after a March meeting hosted by the Ministry of Science and Technology says the central government plans to spend 20 billion yuan to support precision medicine research by 2030, matching an anticipated 40 billion yuan in private investment. Moreover, the top public health authority, the National Health and Family Planning Commission, is drafting a strategic plan for promoting precision medicines development nationwide.

Companies that expect to benefit from the initiative include Shenzhen-based BGI Genomics Co., Hangzhous Berry Genomics Co. and Beijing Biomarker Technologies. Although young, the genetics services sector in the country is already diversifying, with firms staking claims in specialties such as prenatal care and niche services like disease and cancer detection through genetic testing.

BGI, the nations leader in genome sequencing, is a 16-year-old company that bought U.S. medical equipment maker Complete Genomics in 2012 and last October rolled out its first homegrown genome sequencing machine. Berry, established in 2010, is Chinas second-largest genome sequencer and the developer of non-invasive prenatal testing procedure thats been offered since 2011. Beijing Biomarker, founded in 2009, serves research institutions with genetic analyses and testing services.

The precision medicine movement has also won the attention of Internet and computer companies. In October, the U.S. chip maker Intel Corp. and Chinas e-commerce leader Alibaba Group Holding Ltd. announced a three-way partnership with BGI. The firms said they will collaborate to build a cloud-based online platform allowing clinics to access genetic data and other precision medicine services.

Precision medicine requires sharing an individuals genetic data and comparing it to huge amounts of data from similar patients, said Li Yingrui, chief executive of BGI Tech Solution Co., a subsidiary of BGI. Health specialists then use those comparisons to find differences and similarities to work out precise treatment regimes for individual patients. Read more

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