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In biology the genome of an organism is its whole hereditary information and is encoded in the DNA (or, for some viruses, RNA). This includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA. The term was coined in 1920 by Hans Winkler, Professor of Botany at the University of Hamburg, Germany, as a portmanteau of the words gene and chromosome.

More precisely, the genome of an organism is a complete DNA sequence of one set of chromosomes; for example, one of the two sets that a diploid individual carries in every somatic cell. The term genome can be applied specifically to mean the complete set of nuclear DNA (i.e., the "nuclear genome") but can also be applied to organelles that contain their own DNA, as with the mitochondrial genome or the chloroplast genome. When people say that the genome of a sexually reproducing species has been "sequenced," typically they are referring to a determination of the sequences of one set of autosomes and one of each type of sex chromosome, which together represent both of the possible sexes. Even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as "a genome sequence" may be a composite from the chromosomes of various individuals. In general use, the phrase "genetic makeup" is sometimes used conversationally to mean the genome of a particular individual or organism. The study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as genomics, which distinguishes it from genetics which generally studies the properties of single genes or groups of genes.

Most biological entities more complex than a virus sometimes or always carry additional genetic material besides that which resides in their chromosomes. In some contexts, such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe, "genome" is meant to include this auxiliary material, which is carried in plasmids. In such circumstances then, "genomeey" describes all of the genes and non-coding DNA that have the potential to be present.

In vertebrates such as sheep and other various animals however, "genome" carries the typical connotation of only chromosomal DNA. So although human mitochondria contain genes, these genes are not considered part of the genome. In fact, mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome, often referred to as the "mitochondrial genome".

Note that a genome does not capture the genetic diversity or the genetic polymorphism of a species. For example, the human genome sequence in principle could be determined from just half the DNA of one cell from one individual. To learn what variations in DNA underlie particular traits or diseases requires comparisons across individuals. This point explains the common usage of "genome" (which parallels a common usage of "gene") to refer not to any particular DNA sequence, but to a whole family of sequences that share a biological context.

Although this concept may seem counter intuitive, it is the same concept that says there is no particular shape that is the shape of a cheetah. Cheetahs vary, and so do the sequences of their genomes. Yet both the individual animals and their sequences share commonalities, so one can learn something about cheetahs and "cheetah-ness" from a single example of either.

The Human Genome Project was organized to map and to sequence the human genome. Other genome projects include mouse, rice, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the puffer fish, bacteria like E. coli, etc. In 1976, Walter Fiers at the University of Ghent (Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral RNA-genome (bacteriophage MS2). The first DNA-genome project to be completed was the Phage -X174, with only 5368 base pairs, which was sequenced by Fred Sanger in 1977. The first bacterial genome to be completed was that of Haemophilus influenzae, completed by a team at The Institute for Genomic Research in 1995. Many genomes have been sequenced by various genome projects. The cost of sequencing continues to drop, and it is possible that eventually an individual human genome could be sequenced for around several thousand dollars (US).

Note: The DNA from a single human cell has a length of ~1.8m.

Since genomes and their organisms are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multicellular organisms (see Developmental biology). The work is both in vivo and in silico.

Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be measured and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as chromosome number (karyotype), genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005).

Duplications play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplications may range from extension of short tandem repeats, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplications of entire chromosomes or even entire genomes. Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty.

Horizontal gene transfer is invoked to explain how there is often extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many microbes. Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to their nuclear chromosomes.

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Genome | Psychology Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia

February 16, 2017 by Bill Hathaway Credit: Yale University

An analysis of a patient's deadly brain tumor helped doctors at Smilow Cancer Hospital identify new emerging mutations and keep a 55-year old woman alive for more than five years, researchers report in the journal Genome Medicine.

The median survival rate for patients with glioblastoma multiform (GBM) is only 15 months, but three separate genomic analyses of the tumor identified new mutations that allowed doctors to adjust treatment and keep the patient alive for over five years, through two recurrences of the cancer.

"We were able to identify the molecular profile at each recurrence," said Dr. Murat Gnel, chair and the Nixdorff-German Professor in the Department of Neurosurgery, researcher with Yale Cancer Center, and senior author of the paper. "The molecular make-up of the cancer changed after each treatment and with time, but we were able to adjust treatments based on those profiles."

For instance, the last genomic analysis revealed mutations of the cancerunder selective pressure from targeted therapieshad increased 30-fold, making the patient a good candidate for immunotherapy. Although there was an initial response, the cancer ultimately progressed.

The researchers were able to extend the findings on this case to more than 100 other GBM cases, leading to the observation that most GBMs change their genomic profile during therapy. "These findings have significant implications for precision treatment of these tumors" said Dr. Zeynep Erson Omay, the first author of the study and a research scientist in neurosurgery. "We now do a genetic analysis on every glioma surgically removed at Smilow Cancer Hospital during each recurrence or progression, comparing the molecular genomic profile to the original cancer to make treatment decisions."

With new drugs available, there is hope that "we will soon start to see real changes in patient outcomes," Gunel said.

Explore further: Research team tracks twists and turns on the road to malignancy

More information: E. Zeynep Erson-Omay et al. Longitudinal analysis of treatment-induced genomic alterations in gliomas, Genome Medicine (2017). DOI: 10.1186/s13073-017-0401-9

Journal reference: Genome Medicine

Provided by: Yale University

Gliomas can begin as benign growth in brain tissue but almost all eventually morph into malignant cancers called GBMs. Despite medical and surgical advances, GBMs remain one of the most deadly cancers in humans.

Survival for patients with glioblastoma, an aggressive and deadly brain cancer, could be determined by the complexity of their tumor, according to researchers at the Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen).

Researchers leading the largest genomic tumor profiling effort of its kind say such studies are technically feasible in a broad population of adult and pediatric patients with many different types of cancer, and that some ...

Nearly the entire genetic landscape of the most common form of brain tumor can be explained by abnormalities in just five genes, an international team of researchers led by Yale School of Medicine scientists report online ...

Blood samples can be just as effective as invasive tissue biopsies in monitoring cancer and can help doctors better prescribe treatment, a study revealed Saturday.

Next-generation sequencing for patients at UCSF Medical Center is prompting changes in brain tumor diagnoses for some children and a retooling of treatment plans in many cases. Sequencing is also providing valuable insights ...

A new study that confirms the role of a protein called PAK4 in the movement and growth of pancreatic cancer cells could help researchers find new ways to tackle the disease.

Researchers in Germany have discovered that a tumor suppressor protein thought to prevent acute myeloid leukemia (AML) can actually promote a particularly deadly form of the disease. The study, "RUNX1 cooperates with FLT3-ITD ...

Less aggressive cancers are known to have an intact genomethe complete set of genes in a cellwhile the genome of more aggressive cancers tends to have a great deal of abnormalities. Now, a new multi-year study of DNA ...

An Australian-led international research effort has revealed that genetic changes normally linked to breast, colon and ovarian cancers could also drive a rare form of pancreatic cancer.

Scientists at Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University have mapped a vast spider web of interactions between proteins in lung cancer cells, as part of an effort to reach what was considered "undruggable."

To understand what makes breast cancer spread, researchers are looking at where it lives - not just its original home in the breast but its new home where it settles in other organs. What's happening in that metastatic niche ...

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Genome analysis helps keep deadly brain cancer at bay for five years - Medical Xpress

Genome analysis helps keep deadly brain cancer at bay for five ... Science Daily An analysis of a patient's deadly brain tumor helped doctors identify new emerging mutations and keep a 55-year old woman alive for more than five years, ... and more »

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Genome analysis helps keep deadly brain cancer at bay for five ... - Science Daily

Science Daily

Genome surgery with CRISPR-Cas9 to prevent blindness Science Daily Scientists at the Center for Genome Engineering, within the Institute for Basic Science (IBS) report the use of CRISPR-Cas9 in performing "gene surgery" in the layer of tissue that supports the retina of living mice. Published in Genome Research, this ... Human genome editing report strikes the right balance between risks and benefitsMedical Xpress The end of inherited diseases moves a step closerFinancial Times Could gene editing help avoid disease? MaybeThe Sentinel Scientific American (blog) -Science Recorder all 37 news articles »

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Genome surgery with CRISPR-Cas9 to prevent blindness - Science Daily

Human genome editing, like self-driving cars or drone delivery, isbecoming apart of our everyday reality faster than we realize it.

Apanel discussion held at The Rockefeller University entitled "The Future of Gene Editing: A multi-disciplinary panel discussion" broughttogether four expertswho tackle the challenges of human gene-editing from different approaches and perspectives, based on their individual focuses and specialties. Why does this particular area of science need so much conversation?

There are significant concerns, to be sure, especially about unintended consequences. People are particularly nervous about gene drive technology and the release of altered species into the environment. Fears include these altered species entering the food chain, causing the extinction of their or another species and the creating of organisms that we never thought possible, if mutations were to occur, such as super bugs.

Somewhere in the middle of these extremes liesan incredibly difficult, emotional, human conversation that needs to draw lines in new territory where we are not comfortable and have had no practice finding boundaries.

Jamie Metzl(Senior Fellow, Atlantic Council) introduced the subject with the perspective thatgene editing is the single most important topic that should be discussed at this moment in time. Why? Because, as Metzl said, "this is the time when our species took control of our evolutionary process." Moreover, there is no clear answer as to where lines should be drawn between scientific progress and going too far.

One option would be to throw up our hands and let people do what they want - why restrict science? But, the technology behind CRISPR can be done by almost anyone with a pipette, so, wemustdefine therules of engagement. But, stifling all progress because we are scared of the unknown is also not the best answer.

Metzlstarted with a comparison between two people who talked abouttraveling to the Moon - Jules Verne, who wrote: "From the Earth to the Moon" in 1865 and JFK whospoke about goingto the moon just seven years before Apollo 11.Metzl's point is that, when it comes to human gene-editing,we are in 1962, not 1865,and we need to think about itin the present, not as a hypothetical that may happen at some point in the future. As Metzlsays, this is not a discussionabout science, but, a"science-based conversation about the future of our species."

The other panel participants wereRoberto Barbero (the Assistant Director of Biological Innovation, White House Office OfScienceAnd TechnologyPolicy), S. Matthew Liao(Director, Center for BioethicsNYU) and Marnie Gelbart (Director of Programs, Personal Genetics Education Project, Harvard University.)

An ongoing challenge in science communication is in engaginga public that neither truly understands nortrustsscience. Marnie Gelbartraised the issue ofhow can we get everyone to the table forthis conversation? People have concerns that theirgenetic informationmaybe used against them. Also, like most health care advances, access is a concern; gene editing will probably be available to the people who can pay for it - where does that leave everyone else?

For comparison, we can look at the issue of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) - a far less complicated and emotionalissue than human gene-editing. GMOsare the scientific issue with the widest gap in understanding between scientists and the public, with 88% of scientists reporting that GMOsare safe to eat, as compared to just 37% of the public. Scientists understand the biology behind the creation of GMOs, but, have had a difficult time explaining it to the public. Lacking that understanding leaves a lot of spacefor fear and uncertainty.

If we cannot successfully communicate aboutGMOs, it seems unlikely that gene editing is going to be conveyed correctly. As science communicators, we certainly have our work cut out for us.

MatthewLiao took a more philosphicaltack- how willwe decide which traits to alter? He presented fascinating approachesthat can be used in such decision making that will certainly be the topic of futurearticles. In short, he tackles this question from a perspective of human rights - and works on the assumption that every person has equal moral status, regardless of our differences. Further, he focuses on distilling down the minimum framework of what makes a human capable of pursuing a good life. And, this is where his work can gettricky because two people can easily disagree on what those traits are creating A LOT of gray area in the middle. But, at some point, we are going to have to decide on what type of human we are comfortable creating while realizing that diversity is the greatest strength of any species.And, as most of us are probablynot comfortable making those decisions, it is the work of people like Matthew that will come to the forefront.

Overall, the panel discussion and, in particular, the audience's participation,raised many good questions that need to be asked and addressed.The last words of JFK's speech in 1962are as applicable to gene editing as they were at that time to space travel.

"Well, space is there, and we're going to climb it, and the moon and the planets are there, and new hopes for knowledge and peace are there. And, therefore, as we set sail we ask God's blessing on the most hazardous and dangerous and greatest adventure on which man has ever embarked."

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The Rockefeller University Hosts Panel on Human Genome Editing - American Council on Science and Health