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‘Transformers: The Last Knight’ Serves Up Real Space Technology – Space.com
Posted: June 29, 2017 at 11:51 pm
By Elizabeth Howell, Space.com Contributor | June 29, 2017 02:38pm ET
Credit: Paramount
The most recent Transformers film, like its 2011 predecessor, incorporates real space technology into its action-packed chaos.
"Transformers: The Last Knight" grossed a franchise low of $73.2 million after its opening June 21, prompting some to worry if this bodes poorly for the franchise's future, according to the Hollywood Reporter. But as fans discuss what went so wrong with the concept, the real-world space gear that makes an appearance forms a small, bright point in the film.
The International Space Station and Hubble Space Telescope are among the familiar space names cited in "The Last Knight," and for the real space aficionados out there, the scriptwriters even throw in a joke about the space shuttle. While more details are in the following slides, we're keeping it spoiler-free for major plot points, so you can safely read on, even if you haven't seen the film.
Credit: Shutterstock
In "The Last Knight," images from the Hubble Space Telescope are used to track an imminent threat to the Earth. The images are shown briefly in a politician's office in Britain, on a television screen. The telescope has been in orbit since 1992 and is one of NASA's most famous observatories; data from the telescope has been used to determine that the universe's expansion rate is accelerating and to map galaxies from the early universe. Closer to home, Hubble has watched asteroid and comet activity, including when Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 smacked into Jupiter in 1994. [Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9's Epic Crash with Jupiter in Pictures]
Credit: Nasa/Apollo 11
There's a brief shot showing the site of an Apollo moon landing, including an Apollo lunar module, a flag and a spaceship (from the Transformers universe) known as the Ark. As we found out in the 2011 film, "Transformers: Dark of the Moon," the Ark landed on the moon in 1961. In the Transformers universe, the Ark is investigated after the first astronauts on the moon landed during the Apollo 11 mission in 1969. The real Apollo 11 mission was a quick scientific reconnaissance of the moon rocks at the Sea of Tranquility, as well as a technological demonstration that humans could safely land and run a mission on the moon. The Apollo moon program concluded in 1972 after six successful landings and an aborted one (Apollo 13). [Lunar Legacy: 45 Apollo Moon Mission Photos]
Credit: NASA via Getty
Astronauts on the International Space Station see some Transformer technology in action in the new franchise film. On the space station, viewers first see the famed robotic Canadarm2, which is used to grapple cargo spacecraft and other large objects. There also is a view through the Cupola, a seven-window wraparound observatory that astronauts use in real life for photography and to do spacecraft berthings. The space station has been occupied by humans for nearly 17 years, since the arrival of Expedition 1 in 2000. Most crews today number six astronauts, with Americans, Russians and a range of crewmembers from other nations on board.
Credit: NASA via Getty
Most of the space action occurs at NASA''s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which is best-known for its robotic exploration of the solar system through missions such as Cassini; finishing up a mission at Saturn; and New Horizons, which recently passed Pluto.
At JPL, an unnamed engineer (Tony Hale) sees a looming threat to Earth out in the cosmos. Trouble is, nobody believes him at first. Notably, NASA's "meatball" logo appears in the film, which shows that the agency reviewed the script and approved of the use of NASA insignia which isn't always granted: The movie "Life" had an alternate logo.
Credit: Jack Taylor/Getty
The European Space Agency (ESA) is featured several times in "The Last Knight," which is unusual for an American franchise film: Operations at an ESA control center are briefly shown, the Hubble images are credited as coming from ESA (a partner in Hubble) and an ESA image from an unidentified satellite is used to look at a thermal anomaly on Earth. In real life, ESA is an intergovernmental organization with 22 member states. After the United States and Russia, it is the third-largest partner on the International Space Station and has contributed several laboratories, launchers and cargo ships to the orbiting complex.
Credit: Kim Orr/NASA/JPL-Caltech
During "The Last Knight," a very quick video at JPL's Space Flight Operations Facility shows an animation of satellite data flowing into the Deep Space Network. The DSN is a network of three telescopes located in California, Spain and Australia that communicate with missions in deep space. It is perhaps most famous for staying in touch with the two Voyager spacecraft that (between the two missions) flew past Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune in the 1980s and 1990s. In 2012, Voyager 1 sent data back to the DSN indicating that it was the first probe to reach interstellar space. (That fact took another year to be recognized, however.)
Credit: Paramount
One scene during "The Last Knight" likely takes place at a NASA headquarters executive's office: The shot is identified as taking place in Washington, D.C. and the office clearly has a NASA flag hanging in the background. During the scene, one person picks up a model of the space shuttle on top of an aircraft and asks how that combination could possibly fly. The improbable actually did happen dozens of times, however, as the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft an extensively modified Boeing 747 successfully and regularly flew the space shuttle from landings in California to the shuttle's processing facilities at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
After the program's completion in 2011, the SCA ferried the four remaining shuttles (Discovery, Endeavour, Atlantis and test shuttle Enterprise) to museums across the United States. Then, the two SCAs were retired; one was used for parts for NASA's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), while the other was preserved intact for display at the Joe Davies Heritage Airpark in California. [Now Boarding: Inside NASA's Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]
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Elizabeth Howell is a contributing writer for Space.com who is one of the few Canadian journalists to report regularly on space exploration. She is pursuing a Ph.D. part-time in aerospace sciences (University of North Dakota) after completing an M.Sc. (space studies) at the same institution. She also holds a bachelor of journalism degree from Carleton University. Besides writing, Elizabeth teaches communications at the university and community college level. To see her latest projects, follow Elizabeth on Twitter at@HowellSpace.
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Snake Robots Could Allow Us to Explore the Caverns of Mars – Futurism
Posted: at 11:51 pm
In BriefSnake-like planetary exploring robots might be able to help usin a variety of ways in space. They could carry out space-stationrepairs, explore inaccessible areas of distant planets, and inspecttunnels for future human inhabitants. Snake-like Space Explorers
In order to remedy the lack of mobility and dexterity of larger space rovers, the building ofSerpentine Robots for Planetary Exploration (SERPEX), which were originally proposed by the Foundation for Scientific and Industrial ResearchhasNTEF), have now been commissioned by the European Space Agency. The research team responsible for these robots is a collaboration between SINTEF, the Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Space, and the Norwegian Space Centre.
The most likely short term application for such a robot would be helping astronauts to carry out inspections and repairs on spacecraft and structures like the International Space Station. Aksel Andreas Transeth, a Senior Research Scientist on the project, said in a press statement that a snake robot could creep behind the sections, carry out an inspection, and perhaps even perform small maintenance tasks.
Longer term goals include allowing teams to explore places on planets, moons, and comets that traditional six-wheeled craft could not by acting as a detachable arm capable of being operated autonomously. This would allow us to gain a new perspective on the small, hard-to-reach locations and difficult terrains of martian worlds.
Most excitingly, these robots could allow researchers to inspect tunnels beneath planets for habitability, whichis crucial for the potential colonization of other planets. If we adapted to live underground, we would be provided a natural barrier against radiation, comets, and solar rays. The idea has already been linked to the European Space Agencys proposed Moon Village.
Of the first snake robots, a concept robot, called theWheeko Robothas already been developed. It has impressive dexterity and mobility due to to its 10 identical joint modules, each having two motorized degrees of freedom, that are covered with small wheels that enable the robot to slither forward over flat surfaces.
SERPEX could be another weapon in our cosmic investigation arsenal, giving us a new way to explore our Universe. We have so far learned an incredible amount about planets such as Mars by, in part, launching land-based exploration vehicles like the Pathfinder and Sojourner in 1997, Spirit and Opportunity in 2003, and Curiosity in 2012. But these missions have been limited by the terrain that the craft can explore. One example: the Spirit Rovers mission was ended when it got stuck in the mud in 2010.
If SERPEX turns out to be as useful as hoped, however, it will only give us answers to one piece of a much larger planetary puzzle. It will have to be used alongside vehicles such as NASAs Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission (MAVEN) which provides information on Mars atmosphere, and the upcoming InSight mission, which aims to burrow down into the planets surface rather than just exploring its small spaces.
We are living in the golden age of space exploration, with more missions and initiatives planned than ever before. The information we have gathered up to this point on our Solar System with fairly rudimentary exploration tools has been weird, wonderful, and fascinating.
Ideas such as SERPEX are pivotal if we are going to become more proficient in space travel and exploration. And, now that the possibilitycolonizing Mars is looking more and more plausible, anything that adds to our database of knowledge will aid our entire species.
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IKEA Designers Make Life on Mars Feel Like Homeand Vice Versa – Crave Online
Posted: at 11:51 pm
Photo: Courtesy of IKEA
Life on Mars seems simply out of this world. Leave it to Swedish furniture company IKEA look to what the future holds and use the conditions of interplanetary life to address problems on Earth while keep an eye to the inevitable colonization of the Red Planet.
IKEA, known for its cheap and chic designs, announced that it has sent a group of engineers to spend three days at the Mars Desert Ranch Station habitat in Utah, with the aim of learning how to create better design solutions for extreme environments.
Mars Desert Ranch Station habitat in Utah, photo courtesy of IKEA
Its a crazy, fun experience. Were basically completely isolated for three days to get a taste of what astronauts go through for three years, Michael Nikolic, IKEA Creative Leader, said in a statement. Its almost like that misery you feel when youre out camping. But of course, its great to be able to sit down and really spend time with amazingly creative people. That in itself is a luxury.
The Mars Desert Research Station is a confined spacecraft-like environment that simulates the experience of outer space and is regularly used by astronauts to train for space flight. The IKEA team will use the station to explore the extreme conditions on life on Mars and use that knowledge to address issues currently affecting life on Earth: impersonal design, overcrowding, and compact living in urban environments.
The United Nations predicts that by 2050, more than 70% of the Earths population will be living in cities. Faced with the twin issues of overpopulation and climate change, engineers are recognizing that something has got to give and they are trying to address these issues before they arise.
Wired UK recently reported that IKEA also hopes to partner with NASA on the development of outer space habitats as plans to colonize Mars get underway. Marcus Engman, head of design at IKEA, told the site, that the company is looking to see how to make space travel homey and simultaneously use space knowledge for a better everyday life on Earth.
IKEA plans to showcase the knowledge gleaned from these studies in their 2019 collection of an estimated 30 items. Some of it is of course electronics, but some of it is very far from being electronic. Life in music is going to be part of it. And actually even looking into garments, Engman told Wired UK.
In an interview with Popular Science, Nikolic revealed, I think that the essence of this collection will be about appreciating what we have on Earth: human beings, plants clean water and air. But also diversity and a sense of belongingthings that we take for granted on a daily basis. After this journey, itll probably feel pretty awesome to come home to my own bed.
Miss Rosen is a journalist covering art, photography, culture, and books. Her byline has appeared in LUomo Vogue, Vogue Online, The Undefeated, Dazed Digital, Aperture Online, and Feature Shoot. Follow her on Twitter @Miss_Rosen.
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Gene Editing Reverses Huntington’s in Mouse Study – Bioscience Technology
Posted: at 11:50 pm
While still early, a new study reports that the disease process and motor symptoms of Huntingtons disease were reversed using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing methods in mouse models.
The new findings spark hope for future treatments in humans, though much more work to test long-term effects and safety are needed.
Huntingtons is a progressive inherited disease that occurs when a mutant copy of the huntingtin (HTT) gene is inherited from one parent. This leads the production of a toxic protein (mutant huntingtin or mHTT) that that causes brain cells to die and triggers a degenerative process. As time goes on people experience symptoms such as uncontrolled movements, slurred speech, cognitive decline and mood swings.
Researchers led by Su Yang, Ph.D. of Emory University and Renbao Chang, Ph.D., of the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, showed in previous work that stopping production of healthy or mutated HTT protein doesnt cause neurological problems or hurt cells in mice older than four months, so they hypothesized that shutting off both copies of the gene could be safe and potentially reverse early signs of the disease.
In the mouse model used, the animals had one human mutant huntingtin gene in place of one of the mouse huntingtin genes and motor problems as well as aggregated mutant huntingtin could be observed by the age of 9 months.
For the study, the team used a gene therapy method based on AAV (adeno-associated virus) to deliver CRISPR/Cas9-guided enzymes into brain cells. They injected millions of viral vectors into the striatum region of the mouse brains, which is the area that controls motor skills. Neurons received either a short guide RNA sequence to mark for the removal of the HTT genes repeats or a Cas9 enzyme to snip out the repeats, effectively knocking out both healthy and abnormal copies of the HTT gene, and stopping the production of HTT protein.
Three weeks later, the team observed a dramatic decrease in aggregated mutant huntingtin in the striatum. The findings indicate that brain cells have the ability to heal themselves if the genetic source of the toxic proteins is removed, the scientists said.
CRISPR/Cas9 injections were repeated in a dozen 9-month old mice and similar protein-clearing results were observed.
Mice that received the CRISPR/Cas9 injections significantly improved on tests of balance, muscle coordination, and grip strength compared to control Huntingtons mice. However they did not improve to the level of healthy control mice.
Interestingly, how well motor skills improved related to the level of toxic protein that was cleared from the striatum.
One issue with CRISPR/Cas9 that has been reported is unintended mutations resulting from off-target editing. However, the NIH-funded team reported that the gene editing occurred primarily around their target sequences and there was not significant genomic edits in other potential off-target genes.
While this early study is promising, the long-term effects and safety of injecting AAV in the brain to express CRISPR/Cas9 still needs to be thoroughly tested before translating this method to patients, senior author Xiao-Jiang Li, M.D., Ph.D., distinguished professor of human genetics at Emory, said.
The findings were published in The Journal of Clinical Investigation.
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Girl has rare genetic disorder that makes her hair impossible to brush – New York Post
Posted: at 11:50 pm
A one-year-old girl has permanent bedhead thanks to a genetic condition that makes her frizzy white locks impossible to brush.
Phoebe Braswell, from Smithfield, North Carolina, is one of an estimated 100 children worldwide with a documented case of Uncombable Hair Syndrome.
The condition thought to have been the cause of Albert Einsteins wild locks impairs the protein that gives hair its shape and strength. The hair follicles are also kidney-shaped instead of round.
As a result, Phoebes hair is fine, coarse, bright white, tangled and constantly static.
Luckily for Phoebes mom Jamie Braswell, 27, Phoebes favorite movie is Trolls and her favorite character has hair just like hers.
You never think that your child is going to have a rare disorder, but I absolutely love Phoebes hair. Its just Phoebe, Jamie told SWNS.
She loves the Trolls and Poppy is her favorite, with the pink hair. When Phoebe turns two in three months shes going to have a Trolls-themed party, the mom of two said, adding shes nicknamed her youngest daughter Poppy.
Unfortunately to others who dont understand the disorder, Phoebes hair simply looks messy.
We were in the grocery store once and a lady said, She is going to hate you when she looks at her baby photos because you let her go out in public like that, Jamie recalled.
But no matter how many times Jaime brushes Phoebes hair, it stays frizzy. Hair product doesnt help either.
Every morning it is sticking straight up and throughout the day I try and spray stuff in it to keep it down, but within 30 minutes its spiky again, said Jamie.
Thats why Phoebe always has a headband or hair tie in to keep the fly-aways out of her face.
If she didnt have that, people would think I was neglecting her, lamented Jamie.
Jamie first noticed something was different about Phoebe when strands of straw-like hair started to sprout from her scalp when she was 3 months old.
She took Phoebe to a doctor who said hed never seen any child with hair like hers before. After spotting an article on Facebook about Uncombable Hair Syndrome, Jamie phoned the doctor and got a diagnosis.
The syndrome is caused by a mutation to one of three genes PADI3, TGM3 and TCHH Phoebe will have genetic testing in August to confirm she has the disorder.
In total there are 100 cases reported to date in the world but there may be many more which have not been reported, Professor Regina Betz from the Institute for Human Genetics at the University of Bonn, Germany, said.
There is no cure for the condition, though it is reported to improve with age. Jamie thinks her daughters hair is unique, but she fears Phoebe might be bullied when she grows old enough to go to school.
I do worry about her going to school because kids can be so cruel and Phoebe is the most tender-hearted little girl I have ever known, Jamie said.
Its hard for me to anticipate that people might make nasty comments, but I am going to teach her that we are all different in every way and it doesnt matter, she added.
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Waiting for your baggage can often be a boring task,...
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Horse Tale: Oriental Stallions Dominate Horse DNA, Gene Study Shows – NBCNews.com
Posted: at 11:49 pm
A Lipizzan stallion named Conversano Sessana, born in 2001.The Y sequence that is needed as a template to detect variants in any horse is generated from a stallion of this breed. Spanische Hofreitschule Wien
A group of researchers led by Barbara Wallner of the Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics in Vienna, Austria sampled the genes of 52 modern horses representing 21 different breeds for their study. They included the famous white dancing Lipizzaners, quarter horses, cobs, Thoroughbreds and Arabians.
The team focused on the male specific
The findings were startling. Most of the horses in common use descend from just two lineages, the Arabian lineage from the Arabian Peninsula and the Turkoman lineage from the steppes of Central Asia, also widely known as "Oriental" among horse breeders, as reported in the Journal of Current Biology.
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"Apart from stallion lines in Northern European breeds, all stallion lines detected in other modern breeds derive from more recently introduced Oriental ancestors," Wallner said.
Its not surprising that a few studs would have a large number of progeny. Females can have one or two foals a year, while males can sire many.
It seems medieval horse breeders made great use of a few very strong specimens, Wallner said, breeding them with local mares.
The qualities they were looking for are still the same qualities people still admire today.
They wanted them because they were beautiful. They wanted them to be faster and stronger and lighter, Wallner told NBC News.
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Theres plenty of history about horse breeding and its no secret that Arabian stallions were desired and shipped long distances for breeding.
Of particular importance was the trend to import stallions from foreign studs to improve local herds. In central Europe, this practice started in the 16th century with the popularity of Spanish and Neapolitan stallions. Until the end of the 18th century, the Central European horse population was shaped by the introduction of Oriental stallions, they wrote.
A person riding a Lipizzan stallion. They perform in the Spanish Riding School in Vienna. Spanische Hofreitschule Wien
Wallners study shows just how few male lines ended up surviving the process.
Other research has looked at mitochondrial DNA, which females pass down virtually unchanged to their children. This collection of DNA is particularly diverse in horses, demonstrating that many, many mares are ancestors of modern horses.
Now Wallner wants to collect DNA from the remains of ancient horses to see if she can determine when wild horse were first domesticated, and where.
Similar recent studies have shown the surprising
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Researchers identify new mechanism for keeping DNA protein in line – Phys.Org
Posted: at 11:49 pm
June 29, 2017 Shown is the crystal structure of the FEN1 protein bound to its target DNA. Researchers found that single-stranded flaps are threaded through a tunnel in FEN1. The unexpected inversion of the threaded flap, guided by phosphate steering, keeps the phosphodiester bonds facing away from the metals that could inadvertently shred them. Credit: Susan Tsutakawa/Berkeley Lab
The actions of a protein used for DNA replication and repair are guided by electrostatic forces known as phosphate steering, a finding that not only reveals key details about a vital process in healthy cells, but provides new directions for cancer treatment research.
The findings, published this week in the journal Nature Communications, focus on an enzyme called flap endonuclease 1, or FEN1. Using a combination of crystallographic, biochemical, and genetic analyses, researchers at the Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) showed that phosphate steering kept FEN1 in line and working properly.
"FEN1, like many DNA replication and repair proteins, have paradoxical roles relevant to cancer," said study lead author Susan Tsutakawa, a biochemist at Berkeley Lab's Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division. "A mistake by FEN1 could damage the DNA, leading to the development of cancer. On the other side, many cancers need replication and repair proteins to survive and to repair DNA damaged from cancer treatments. New evidence shows that phosphate steering helps ensure that FEN1 behaves as it should to prevent genome instability."
During the process of replication, double-stranded DNA unzips to expose the nucleotides along its two separate strands. In that process, flaps of single-stranded DNA are created. The job of FEN1 is to remove those flaps by positioning metal catalysts so that they can break down the phosphodiester bonds that make up the backbone of nucleic acid strands. This cleavage action occurs in the duplex DNA near the junction with the single-stranded flap.
Flaps that remain uncleaved can lead to toxic DNA damage that either kill the cell or cause extensive mutations. For example, trinucleotide repeat expansions, a mutation associated with disorders such as Huntington's disease and fragile X syndrome, are characterized by the failure of FEN1 to cut off the excess strand.
"What had been unclear before our study was how FEN1 was able to identify its exact target while preventing the indiscriminate cutting of single-stranded flaps," said Tsutakawa. "There must be a way for this protein to not shred similar targets, such as single-stranded RNA or DNA. Getting that right is critical."
Tsutakawa worked with corresponding author John Tainer, Berkeley Lab research scientist and a professor at the University of Texas, at the Advanced Light Source, a DOE Office of Science User Facility that produces extremely bright X-ray beams suitable for solving the atomic structure of protein and DNA complexes. Using X-ray crystallography, they were able to get a molecular-level view of the FEN1 protein structure.
They determined that the single-stranded flap threaded through a small hole formed by the FEN1 protein. The size of the hole serves as an extra check that FEN1 is binding the correct target. However, they surprisingly found that the single-stranded flap is inverted such that the more vulnerable part of the DNA, the phosphodiester backbone, faces away from the metal catalysts, thereby reducing the chance of inadvertent incision.
The inversion is guided by a positively charged region in FEN1 that stabilizes the upside-down position and steers the negatively charged phosphodiester of the single-stranded DNA through the FEN1 tunnel.
"These metals are like scissors and will cut any DNA near them," said Tsutakawa. "The positively charged region in FEN1 acts like a magnet, pulling the flap away from these metals and protecting the flap from being cut. This is how FEN1 avoids cutting single-stranded DNA or RNA."
"This phosphate steering is a previously unknown mechanism for controlling the specificity of FEN1," she added. "Cancer cells need FEN proteins to replicate, so understanding how FEN1 works could help provide targets for research into treatments down the line."
Explore further: Enzyme follows a two-step verification system before cutting and repairing DNA damage
More information: Susan E. Tsutakawa et al, Phosphate steering by Flap Endonuclease 1 promotes 5-flap specificity and incision to prevent genome instability, Nature Communications (2017). DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15855
Microscopes that reveal the hidden complexities of life down to the nanoscale level have shown in exquisite detail how an enzyme involved in DNA repair works its molecular magic.
An international team of scientists has discovered how compounds block flap endonuclease 1 (FEN1) - a crucial enzyme class in the DNA damage response and potential target for cancer treatment.
(PhysOrg.com) -- An enzyme essential for DNA replication and repair in humans works in a way that might be exploited as anti-cancer therapy, say researchers at The Scripps Research Institute and Lawrence Berkeley National ...
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Whether or not society shakes its addiction to oil and gasoline will depend on a number of profound environmental, geopolitical and societal factors.
The actions of a protein used for DNA replication and repair are guided by electrostatic forces known as phosphate steering, a finding that not only reveals key details about a vital process in healthy cells, but provides ...
Worker and queen honeybees exposed to field realistic levels of neonicotinoids die sooner, reducing the health of the entire colony, a new study led by York University biologists has found.
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Newly identified small RNA fragments defend the genome when it’s … – Phys.Org
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June 29, 2017 A hairpin loop from a pre-mRNA. Highlighted are the nucleobases (green) and the ribose-phosphate backbone (blue). Note that this is a single strand of RNA that folds back upon itself. Credit: Vossman/ Wikipedia
Our genomes are minefields, studded with potentially damaging DNA sequences over which hundreds of thousands of sentries stand guard. These sentries, called epigenetic marks, attach to the double helix at such spots and prevent the underlying DNA sequences from springing into destructive action.
About half the human genome is composed of these damaging sequences. They are places where ancient viruses and parasitic elements called transposons and retrotransposons have incorporated themselves over the long course of evolution. It's astonishing, then, to consider that during two of the most crucial processes in the life cycle, the sentries are removed, leaving the genome naked. The defenders are quickly welcomed back, but only after an interval in which the epigenetic slate is wiped clean.
Today in Cell, a team from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL) describes its discovery of what might be considered emergency replacements for the sentries, shock troops pressed into service across the genome only during these curiously undefended moments. Specifically, these defenders are protecting the genome in mammalian embryos, at the very early point in their development before they are implanted in the wall of the maternal uterus.
The preimplantation embryo is one of two normal settings in which epigenetic marks are wiped clean before being reinscribed. The other setting is a step in the formation of germline cells - sperm and eggswhich have temporary defenders already known to biology, so-called piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs). The research published today, led by first author Andrea Schorn, a postdoctoral investigator in the lab of Rob Martienssen, demonstrates that another species of small RNA performs an analogous genome-defending role in preimplantation embryos during an interval of epigenetic reprogramming. Dr. Martienssen is a CSHL Professor and HHMI-Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation investigator.
The newly identified defenders come in two varieties - RNA fragments consisting of 18 and 22 nucleotides. These RNA fragments, Dr. Schorn discovered, are perfect complements of sequences in retrotransposons that must be engaged in order for the genomic parasites to be activated.
This fact led to the discovery. Schorn scrutinized the contents of mouse embryonic stem cells and found many free-floating RNA fragments 18 nucleotides in length. Computer analysis revealed that their sequences perfectly matched sequences within transfer RNAs. tRNAs are ubiquitous, and are involved in the synthesis of proteins. It has been known for decades that tRNAs are hijacked by long terminal repeat (LTR)-retrotransposons, a portion of their sequence docking at a primer binding site (PBS) and initiating a process that activates the genomic parasite.
"Knowing that LTR retrotransposons need tRNAs to replicate, it was very tempting to believe that these 18-nucleotide tRNA fragments we were seeing in preimplantation embryonic stem cells could interfere with that process," says Schorn. "We think the cell is deliberately chopping up full-length tRNAs into smaller fragments precisely because both tRNAs and the fragments cut from them recognize the PBS. This means the small, tRNA-derived fragments would be able to occupy that site and inhibit retrotransposon replication and mobility," Martienssen explains.
The implications, Martienssen says, are potentially profound. This appears to tell us one way in which the genomes of mammals have tolerated vast numbers of transposons and other parasitic elements, even during periods when the genome is wiped clean of repressive epigenetic marks. "It's plausible that this is a very ancient mechanism that cells have found to not only inhibit retrotransposons but help in protection against viruses as well," Martienssen says.
Explore further: Newly identified small-RNA pathway defends genome against the enemy within
More information: "LTR-Retrotransposon Control by tRNA-Derived Small RNAs" appears online in Cell June 29, 2017.
Journal reference: Cell
Provided by: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
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Gene Medicine Therapy Market Growth Analysis, Share, Demand by Regions, Types and Analysis of Key Players … – MilTech
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Gene Medicine Therapy Market Growth Analysis, Share, Demand by Regions, Types and Analysis of Key Players ... - MilTech
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