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New study identifies gene that could play key role in depression – Medical Xpress
Posted: July 7, 2017 at 1:45 am
July 6, 2017 Credit: CC0 Public Domain
Globally, depression affects more than 300 million people annually. Nearly 800,000 die from suicide every yearit is the second-leading cause of death among people between the ages of 15 to 29. Beyond that, depression destroys quality for life for tens of millions of patients and their families. Although environmental factors play a role in many cases of depression, genetics are also crucially important.
Now, a new study by researchers at the University of Maryland School of Medicine (UM SOM) has pinpointed how one particular gene plays a central roleeither protecting from stress or triggering a downward spiral, depending on its level of activity.
The study, published today in the Journal of Neuroscience, is the first to illuminate in detail how this particular gene, which is known as Slc6a15, works in a kind of neuron that plays a key role in depression. The study found the link in both animals and humans.
"This study really shines a light on how levels of this gene in these neurons affects mood," said the senior author of the study, Mary Kay Lobo, an assistant professor in the Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology. "It suggests that people with altered levels of this gene in certain brain regions may have a much higher risk for depression and other emotional disorders related to stress."
In 2006, Dr. Lobo and her colleagues found that the Slc6a15 gene was more common among specific neurons in the brain. They recently demonstrated that these neurons were important in depression. Since this gene was recently implicated in depression by other researchers, her lab decided to investigate its role in these specific neurons. In this latest study, she and her team focused on a part of the brain called the nucleus accumbens. This region plays a central role in the brain's "reward circuit." When you eat a delicious meal, have sex, drink alcohol, or have any other kind of enjoyable experience, neurons in the nucleus accumbens are activated, letting you know that the experience is pushing the proper buttons. In depression, any kind of enjoyment becomes difficult or impossible; this symptom is known as anhedonia, which in Latin means the inability to experience pleasure.
The researchers focused on a subset of neurons in the nucleus accumbens called D2 neurons. These neurons respond to the neurotransmitter dopamine, which plays a central role in the reward circuit.
They studied mice susceptible to depression; when subjected to social stressexposure to larger, more aggressive micethey tend to withdraw and exhibit behavior that indicates depression, such as social withdrawal and lack of interest in food that they normally enjoy. Dr. Lobo found that when these animals were subjected to chronic social stress, levels of the Slc6a15 gene in the D2 neurons of the nucleus accumbens was markedly reduced.
The researchers also studied mice in which the gene had been reduced in D2 neurons. When those mice were subjected to stress, they also exhibited signs of depression. Conversely, when the researchers enhanced Slc6a15 levels in D2 neurons, the mice showed a resilient response to stress.
Next, Dr. Lobo looked at the brains of humans who had a history of major depression and who had committed suicide. In the nucleus accumbens of these brains, the gene was reduced. This indicates that the link between gene and behavior extends from mice to humans.
It is not clear exactly how Slc6a15 works in the brain. Dr. Lobo says it may work by altering neurotransmitter levels in the brain, a theory that has some evidence from other studies. She says her research could eventually lead to targeted therapies focused on Slc6a15 as a new way to treat depression.
Explore further: Brain protein influences how the brain manages stress; suggests new model of depression
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Here and throughout the article, shouldn't it say the Slc6a15 gene was expressed more? The wording used makes it sound like these brain cells have more of the gene than other cells in the body, but if I remember high school biology correctly, that isn't true.
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New study identifies gene that could play key role in depression - Medical Xpress
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Powerful New Cloning Technique Can Clone Thousands of Genes at Once – Futurism
Posted: at 1:45 am
In Brief Researchers have developed a new gene cloning technique that works on thousands of genes at once: the LASSO probe. The tool will enable far more rapid discovery of biomarkers for numerous diseases and new treatments for them. LASSO Cloning
Scientists from Harvard Medical School, Johns Hopkins, Rutgers, and the University of Trento in Italy have developed LASSO cloning, a new molecular technique. LASSO cloning can be used to simultaneously isolate long DNA sequences faster than was previously possible. This new technique speeds up protein creation, which means that genes (the final product of the process) are arrived at more quickly. This, in turn, can enable far more rapid discovery of biomarkers for numerous diseases and their treatments.
In the past, researchers have sussed out what a gene does by cloning its DNA and then expressing the protein it codes for single gene by single gene. With this novel molecular approach, a single reaction can clone and express thousands of DNA sequences at once. The technique involves the use of a novel captured DNA strand, the LASSO probe (Long Adapter Single-Stranded Oligonucleotide). Researchers can use collections of these tools to grab DNA sequences theyre after. Unlike a cowboy roping cattle, however, scientists using the LASSO probe can capture thousands of sequences in a single try.
The LASSO technique improves on molecular inversion probes (MIPs), an older method which is limited to capturing only about 200 DNA bases at once. This is minuscule compared to each LASSO target gene sequence which can be as much as a few thousand DNA base pairs longaround the length of a typical genes protein-coding sequence.
The team used LASSO probes to simultaneously capture more than 3,000 DNA fragments from the E. coli genome as part of a proof-of-concept study. They captured at least 75 percent of their gene targets successfully. More importantly, however, the tool allows researchers to capture sequences in a way that allows them to analyze what the corresponding proteins do.
Were very excited about all the potential applications for LASSO cloning, Larman said in the release. Our hope is that by greatly expanding the number of proteins that can be expressed and screened in parallel, the road to interesting biology and new therapeutic biomolecules will be dramatically shortened for many researchers.
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CNN Host Who Wants All ‘Racists’ Outed Has His Own Past To Worry About – The Daily Caller
Posted: at 1:44 am
Michael Smerconish, a CNN host and SiriusXM personality, made news Thursday forsaying that people who act like a bigot or racist online should be outed, yet his own past writingmay reflect attitudes that the Left considersracist.
While Michael Smerconish has expressed a number ofliberalviewsin recent years, many of his past columns endorse ideas that, by the standards of the American Left, could be seen as racist. (RELATED:CNNs Michael Smerconish: Media Should Out Anonymous People If They Say Bigoted Things [VIDEO])
In a blog post from November 2009published at the Huffington Post, Smerconish explicitly promotes racial profiling, something that would surely be found racist and Islamophobic by his left-wing peers.
He writes, Profiling. Lets look for terrorists who look like terrorists. Those who threaten us have similarities. In virtually every instance, they have race, gender, ethnicity, religion and appearance in common. Those characteristics should be considered as we seek to prevent terrorist strikes against the United States. Everyone needs to be screened, but some more than others. When the terrorists start looking like Thurston Howell, III, we will change accordingly.
In the same column, Smerconish also endorsed immigration policy that was positively Trumpian.
He said, Immigration. Our borders are porous. They need to be closed. Only when they are closed should we make decisions as to what to do with the millions who are already here illegally. It is impractical to believe we will ship them back to wherever they came from. But through attrition, and by ensuring no more of their friends and relatives join them, we will probably diminish the herd.
This isnt Smerconishs only writingabout immigration. He also penned a 2007 articlefor the Huffington Post where he writes,Our borders are porous, and Congress wont act. The closest theyve come was to approve 700 miles of fencing, but without funding. Meanwhile, the quality of life in Hazleton declines.
Smerconish also wrote an article in 2006 for HuffPost positively reviewing Pat Buchanans book, State of Emergency: The Third World Invasion and Conquest of America.
In the article, he cites a fact Buchanan pointed out about illegal aliens criminality, saying, One in every 12 people breaking into the United States illegally has a criminal record.
He also notes Buchanans claim about white people becoming a minority, saying, By 2050, the U.S. population of European descent will be a minority, as it is today in California, Texas, and New Mexico.
Smerconish writes, Those coming here are disproportionately poor, uneducated and criminal. And the fact that they are emigrating from countries that have themselves never been fully assimilated into the First World, is what separates this group from our forefathers. They are breaking in, not playing by the rules. Most important, many have no desire to be American. So why does it continue?
The status quo is enabled by multinational corporations anxious to topple sovereign borders, a Hispanic media that depends for its survival on the perpetuation of bilingualism and gutless politicians. Political correctness is a major factor. Witness how many seek to dismiss Buchanans analysis as the work of a white guy uncomfortable with the realization that his kind is losing its dominance and control. Or they try to label him a racist or xenophobe.
Finally, he ends the column by saying, State of Emergency, indeed. Its time to close and defend our borders.
Smerconish also wrote a sardonic 2006 article for HuffPost that seemed to criticize illegalimmigrants for their lack of assimilation and the political correctness that prevents people from talking about it.
He also advocated a position that many leftists would seemingly find Islamophobic in a 2005 column for HuffPost. In the article, he speaks approvingly of flushing the Koran down the toilet to intimidate Muslim Gitmo detainees.
He says, When I first read the Newsweek blurb that said our interrogators were threatening the flushing of the Koran as a means of getting information out of bad guys at Gitmo Bay, it didnt even register. It was that tame, at least to me. After all, what were talking about here is the use of non-physical means to extract information from suspected al Qaeda members in the context of a war on terror.
He adds, Those depicted on my set are willing to work themselves into a lather while burning our flag over reports of the American Standardizing of the Koran, and look about one small step removed from the terrorists who cut off Nick Bergs head or flew airplanes into the Twin Towers. These enemies of the United States are lunatics, and the depravity of radical Islam knows no bounds. If the toilet act doesnt work, lets try a menstruating American GI, riding a pig, if available.
CNN drew outrage this week afterits reporter Andrew Kaczynskitracked down thecreator of the pro wrestling gif tweeted out by President Trump and the network seemed the threaten to reveal the mans identity. Many saw CNNs behavior as blackmail. (RELATED:Extremely Unethical CNN Draws Backlash After Threatening To ID Reddit User Behind Trumps WWE Video)
However, Smerconish had a different take, saying on his SiriusXM show Wednesday that because the creator of the gif may also have made postings that were racist and anti-Semitic, he deserves to be outed.
If he continues to be a racist, if he continues to be a bigot, if he continues to be anti-Semitic, theyre gonna out him. Yeah, I like that, he asserted. He should be outed.
Smerconish also said on Thursday that people who promote hate, also sacrifice any right to privacy that you otherwise would have had.
By saying this, Smerconish essentially endorsed doxxing anyone who can be perceived to be a racist or bigot, effectively leaving them jobless and open to harassment and threats. (RELATED:CNN Analyst: You Dont Have The Right To Be Anonymous)
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A blue wall of grief – Toledo Blade
Posted: at 1:44 am
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Officer Miosotis Familia was murdered, assassinated point-blank and in cold blood, without provocation, on a corner in the Bronx where she was making a difference defusing fear and racial tension.
Her killer, Alexander Bonds, taken down by two other police officers in pursuit after he fired on them and hit a bystander, was both mentally ill and a cop hater. His illness does not explain, or negate, his hate.
By all accounts, Officer Familia was a great cop, and a great human being. She was the kind of cop police chiefs and do-gooders alike dream of. She knew the people on her beat and reached out to them, often in Spanish. She raised three kids and took care of her mother, who lived with her. She was, said a nephew, a warrior in life as well as work.
Officer Familia was the first female New York Police Department officer killed in the line of duty since 9/11, and the third female officer killed in a combat situation in the departments history.
Why does someone like that have to die like that?
This is what the New York City police commissioner, James P. ONeill, said: Make no mistake: Officer Familia was murdered for her uniform and for the responsibility she embraced.
Was she? Wasnt she killed because hate consumed the mind of a crazy man?
Would the chief put it quite this way given time to reflect and consider his words?
Or would he point out that the reason a sick mind and a heart filled with hate targeted a cop is that cops are too often disrespected and misunderstood in America?
Most of us have no idea what a police officers life is like. We dont comprehend what an officer risks every day on the job. We cant know the knot in the belly of every cop as he approaches every car he stops. (Will this be the day? Will this be the one?) We dont see the reality of many of the people police officers deal with daily. Many are people who have never known lifes value, never seen that value treasured or expressed. That often makes them unpredictable and dangerous people.
Being a cop has always been tough. It is tougher than ever today.
And most of us have no idea. None.
We mostly never will because few of us have ever really talked to a police officer. All we know about police work is what we have seen on TV, where good guys and bad guys alike shoot straight and the bad guys act with rational motives.
And how insane has our political culture gotten when it is considered controversial or politically incorrect to say that both black lives and blue lives matter? Of course they do. Of course they are linked. Author Heather Mac Donald has summarized the irony: There is no government agency that has saved more black lives over the last two decades than the police.
The death of Officer Familia is an American tragedy and that the commissioner thinks what he thinks about her death is a second tragedy. Many cops believe their communities often do not have their backs. They feel the blue brotherhood is their only real extended family.
Obviously, every police force, in every American city, should have every possible resource it needs. And when a police officer is assassinated simply for being a cop, all the resource questions must be asked and all procedures reviewed.
But beyond this, our police officers deserve our deeper understanding, our curiosity, our sympathy, and our undying appreciation. And when one falls, our abiding sense of loss and grief.
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Bill Maher brings his politically charged comedy to Dr. Phillips Center – Orlando Weekly (blog)
Posted: at 1:44 am
Posted By Thaddeus McCollum on Thu, Jul 6, 2017 at 7:00 AM
Its gotta be difficult getting opposing sides of the culture war to despise you for completely different things, but Bill Maher, longtime host of HBOs Real Time, has somehow managed it. While the right has long despised Maher for what they view as smarmy liberal elitism he famously critiqued the characterization of terrorists as cowardly on his former talk show, Politically Incorrect, and starred in the documentary Religulous, in which he derides organized religion as a scam. But this year, Maher has had to duck swings from the left after booking internet hatemonger Milo Yiannopolous on his show, a move which critics say lent legitimacy to Yiannopolous particularly vile brand of jackassery. Then, just last month, Maher flippantly referred to himself as a house you-know-what on live TV a gaffe that Maher attempted to address head-on the following week. Expect to hear his side of all this and more when Maher takes the stage at the Dr. Phillips Center this week for a night of politically charged comedy. And hey, a guy who can unite the political divide in this country on anything has to be doing something right right?
Saturday, 8 p.m. | Walt Disney Theater, Dr. Phillips Center for the Performing Arts, 445 S. Magnolia St. | 844-513-2014 | drphillipscenter.org | $45-$110
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Bill Maher brings his politically charged comedy to Dr. Phillips Center - Orlando Weekly (blog)
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Archbishop John Hughes Honored With ‘Blue Plaque’ in His Native Ireland – National Catholic Register (blog)
Posted: at 1:44 am
Blogs | Jul. 6, 2017
It is refreshing to hear of a politically incorrect prelate, by modern standards, being honored in an era such as ours.
Not everyone gets to receive a present on their220thbirthday.
But on the Feast of the Nativity of Saint John the Baptist, Archbishop John Hughesthe first Archbishop of New Yorkwas honoredin his home parish of Clogher, in County Tyrone, Ireland, when the Primate of All Ireland, Archbishop Eamon Martin, unveiled a special Blue Plaque to commemorate Dagger John, the immigrant laborer who founded Saint Patricks Cathedral and Fordham University.
The Blue Plaque, generally, is a special honour organized by a group called The Ulster History Circle to commemorate men and women whohave, in a public way, contributed to the history of the northern part of the island of Ireland.
Speaking at the unveiling ceremony, in St Macartans Church, in the Diocese of Clogher (Clogher also being the name of the parish), Archbishop Martin communicated a taste of the life and times of Archbishop Hughes, who was just a young man, still in his teenage years, when he left Ireland for America in 1816.
Archbishop Hughes became a dedicated pastor and a forthright preacher who was determined to lift the lid on the struggles and grievances of Catholics at home in Ireland and in America, Archbishop Martin said.
Hughes life story, he continued, intersects with major issues of that timefrom Catholic Emancipation in Ireland, to the right to faith based education in New York; from wrangles over the Union and Constitution of the United States to disagreements over the abolition of slavery, from the plight of thousands of Irish immigrants fleeing the famine, to the nativist riots in Philadelphia and elsewhere.
When you look through these windows to the past from a distance of two hundred years, Archbishop Martin said, it is difficult to unravel the complexity and appreciate the nuances of that time which, although quite unlike our own, is in some ways strangely familiar.
One of those strangely familiar ways that Archbishop Martin alluded to is, of course, the political attacks on the Faith, and in particular, the attacks on Catholic education, which he has to deal with nowjust as Archbishop Hughes had to deal with themin his day.
Before he left Ireland, the legacy of the anti-Catholic Penal Laws meant that the future Archbishop of New York needed to attend a hedge school.
Later, as Bishop of New York, he came up against other obstacles to Catholic education, most notably in the form of the Public School Society.
Now, in a strangely familiar way, back in Ireland, again, Archbishop Eamon Martin is being confronted with the prospect of a law that would openly discriminate against Catholic parentsand thisin a country that's predominantly Catholic.
The twin themes of education and attacks on the Faith were also taken up by Monsignor Joseph McGuinness, the Diocesan Administrator of the Diocese of Clogher.
Speaking of the link between Archbishop Hughes and Blessed John Henry Newman, Monsignor McGuinness noted that Archbishop Hughes regarded John Henry Newman as the greatest man in the Church in his time. It was of course Cardinal Newman, he said, who was to come to Dublin in 1854 to set up the Catholic University which Archbishop Hughes had so willingly enabled through his support for the fundraising in New York. In Dublin, he said, Newman sought to give practical expression to his idea of a university.
In the thought of Newman and in the action of Hughes, the Monsignor said, we see a clear recognition of the value of intellectual formation and its centrality to the dialogue between faith and society that was current then, and is so urgently needed now. In the midst of political attacks on the faith in his time, Archbishop Hughes, like Newman, placed great emphasis on education and, like the gardener that he was, on the cultivation of the mind, which enables full-hearted engagement with profound ideas.
In another parallel between the present time and that of Archbishop Hughes, a group of Irish and American Catholics have taken up the task of giving practical expression to the idea of a university that Blessed John Henry Newman had initiated in response to the wishes of Blessed Pius IX, almost 200 years ago. The new Newman College Ireland is now entering its fourth year!
On a lighter note, Archbishop Eamon Martin also recalled that, People laughed when Archbishop Hughes began to plan a Cathedral on what was then the remote 51st Street far out on 5th Avenue. They called it Hughes' Folly but time would show that, as on many other issues, Archbishop Hughes was ahead of the rest in anticipating the growth and future strategic importance of mid-Manhattan.
As the words of the song go, Who, who, who, whos got the last laugh, now?
Finally, as Monsignor McGuinness, pointed out, To some, (Archbishop Hughes) appeared stubborn and pugnacious. Critics had claimed that the cross with which he, in common with all bishops, prefaced his signature, was, in his case, really a dagger. But, Monsignor McGuinness claimed, these were qualities which were put to good use in the service of his people.
Neither were his views narrowly sectarianindeed he had a horror of bigotry and discrimination. He also hired a Protestant, James Renwick, as the architect for the building (of Saint Patricks Cathedral) and managed to secure funds from many Protestants for the project, despite the turbulent political and religious feuds of the time.
Whatever ones views of the man, it is perhaps refreshing to hear of a politically incorrect prelate, by modern standards, being honored in an era that seems to impose an increasingly tight blueprint on the expectations of the personalities of our senior Churchmen.
Cardinal Dolan's Message
The following is a special message from Cardinal Timothy Dolanthe tenth Archbishop of New Yorkwho conveyed his good wishes on the occasion of the unveiling of the Blue Plaque to honour the late Archbishop John Hughes.
It is a joy to send greetings from the Archdiocese of New York on the auspicious occasion of the unveiling of a blue plaque to commemorate Archbishop John Joseph Hughes in his native parish. His achievements, coming from a humble background in Co Tyrone, Ireland, from where he emigrated to the United States, are worthy of special mention. He distinguished himself by becoming the first Archbishop of New York, founding Saint Patricks Cathedral, as well as Fordham University (formerly Saint Johns College). Here in the United States, we owe Archbishop Hughes a great debt of gratitude, and so it is only right that we reflect with pride on his life. May I wish you every success with your plaque unveiling to a truly deserving figure who became one of the most influential men of his time and won the respect of many. We just put up a bronze bust of him at the entrance to the Basilica of Old Saint Patricks Cathedral, so we are united in this tribute to a great man.
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‘Reason You’re Alive’ is a feel-good experience – Arizona Daily Star
Posted: at 1:44 am
The Reason Youre Alive by Matthew Quick; Harper (240 pages, $25.99)
In The Reason Youre Alive, Matthew Quick performs a nifty literary magic trick.
The author of The Silver Linings Playbook introduces readers to David Granger, a politically incorrect Vietnam veteran who takes pride in the fact that hes basically too ornery to die. By books end, everyone will wind up loving the camouflage-wearing, knife-carrying sociopath.
Turns out hes really not such a bad guy once you get to know him.
The Reason Youre Alive (Harper, $25.99) is Granger telling his life story: going rogue and committing atrocities in the Vietnam jungle, coming home to a military psychiatric facility, marrying a woman more unstable than he is, and always at odds with his now-grown ignorant liberal art-dealer son.
Our protagonist ultimately goes on a mission to atone for an old transgression. He feels compelled to return a knife he stole nearly 50 years ago from his Vietnam nemesis: Clayton Fire Bear.
When readers make it to the Capra-esque final pages, they are almost certain to shed a feel-good tear or two. Our hero would bust their chops for all the boohooing and girly-man behavior, but so be it.
Quick is adapting his book into a screenplay. Film rights were sold last year to Miramax.
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'Reason You're Alive' is a feel-good experience - Arizona Daily Star
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How anti-choice zealots cry censorship whenever they are challenged – Media Matters for America
Posted: at 1:43 am
Media Matters for America | How anti-choice zealots cry censorship whenever they are challenged Media Matters for America Most recently, Lila Rose, founder of the anti-abortion group Live Action, appeared on the June 26 edition of Tucker Carlson Tonight and claimed that Twitter was censoring Live Action's ads. Beyond alleging that Twitter was biased against the anti ... |
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Natural-Law Libertarianism And The Pursuit Of Justice – The Liberty Conservative
Posted: at 1:42 am
Brink Lindsey of the Cato Institute recently wrote an article arguing that libertarians should abandon any arguments regarding natural rights. As Lindsey sees it, the concept of natural rights is an intellectual dead end and that adherence to natural rights arguments should be abandoned. His perspective can largely be boiled down into two categories: strategic pragmatism and the inadequacy of the natural rights doctrine in constructing a libertarian legal order.
Libertarians always have and always will debate strategy. This question is not very interesting to me as it can ultimately only be answered empirically. Lindsey argues that Instead of spinning utopias, libertarians should focus instead on the humbler but more constructive task of making the world we actually inhabit a better place. Im very open to this argument, and as soon as the Cato Institute can demonstrate that it has actually effected change in government policy in a libertarian direction, I am willing to consider capitulating to Lindseys arguments for a more pragmatic strategy. As of yet, however, his constructive approach to libertarianism has had no more reductive effects in government than the purist approach to libertarianism he loves to attack, so it is objectively impossible for him to proclaim his views to be any less utopian than the radicals who stubbornly cling to their principles.
More interesting to me is the claim that natural rights are insufficient in determining a full-blown, operational legal order. This statement is interesting because I was not aware that any natural-rights libertarian scholar ever claimed that it could. Lindsey argues that the problem lies not with the concept of natural rights, but in that concepts overextension because these principles fail to determine the specific guidelines upon which all disputes would be precisely adjudicated.
The first correction that must be made to Lindseys argument is that no serious libertarian thinker argues that natural rights are the beginning and end of libertarian legal theory. What these principles allow us to do is to establish, first, a property ethic and, from this, a theory of justice. Hans Hermann Hoppe offers what is arguably the most complete natural rights doctrine known as his Argumentation Ethics. Even natural rights libertarians who do not accept the ethics of argumentation generally agree on the principles it purports to prove: The Private Property Ethic (or, the Libertarian Property Ethic) and its logical derivative the Non-Aggression Principle, which we may call the libertarian theory of justice.
This forms an ethical basis for libertarianism without which we would have no means of determining what constitutes a libertarian position to begin with. In fairness, Lindsey is not claiming that natural rights are necessarily wrong; he is just saying that libertarians should abandon these ideas whether they are correct or not for pragmatic reasons, of course.
Brink Lindsey may desire a libertarian community that is held together only by a label representing a hodgepodge of contradictory political positions after all, this is the formula that has made the Republican and Democratic parties so successful! but we nave purists often desire something more consistent and principled to associate ourselves with, and there is no means of establishing principles aside from ethical philosophy. What the ethical philosophy of natural rights allows us to do is direct our own individual behavior according to libertarian principles and to prescribe political solutions that are ethically consistent with these principles. This does not mean that there is a precisely determined, canonical position on every conceivable issue for libertarians, but these disagreements stem from the fact that ethical philosophy can (and should) be debated. But it cannot be dismissed altogether.
However, Lindsey is correct in arguing that the establishment of this theory of justice is insufficient in determining legal structure and answering certain questions regarding positive law. He does concede that more sophisticated presentations of radical libertarianism do take note of some of these complexities but adds the caveat that they present these open questions as minor blank spaces in an otherwise determinate legal structure, to be filled in by custom or common-law jurisprudence. The problem with his objection is that this demands natural rights theory to be something more than it is intended to be. Thus, it isnt the natural rights libertarians who are overextending the theory of natural rights; it is Brink Lindsey who is doing so.
Natural rights libertarian theorists such as Murray Rothbard and Hans Hermann Hoppe also combine ethical principles with the economic methodology of Ludwig von Mises praxeology to determine what economic system is most compatible with the Private Property Ethic in maximizing prosperity (they determine, as anarcho-capitalists, that a purely free market is the most compatible with this end), and they derive from this economic framework the most compatible legal framework that, combined with the libertarian theory of justice, will most effectively handle disputes. The complete libertarian political framework provides both an ethical and a pragmatic answer to political questions, but Brink Lindsey appears to live in a world in which a libertarian must choose to deal exclusively with one category or the other. This one-sided approach to libertarianism is neither desirable nor possible (after all, even if one were to make an exclusively pragmatic argument, as Lindsey advises, then the assumption of any goodness of the results of the policies prescribed tacitly depend on some ethical value judgment to begin with).
Economic theory does not empower us to determine the specific manner in which a legal system will manifest in a given society. It simply tells us that on the assumption that human beings value peace above conflict institutions will emerge that will best facilitate the administration of justice according to the preferences of consumers. This is the economic basis for private courts.
Concomitant to private courts is the establishment of private law, which legal theorists will refer to as common law. As previously quoted, Lindsey assumes that no libertarian has ever offered any answer as to how common law will fill in the blank spaces of the otherwise determinate legal structure. This may be the case if one confines himself to the world of the Cato Institute, as Brink Lindsey appears to do in citing only Cato Institute adjunct scholars in reference to his arguments. But if he were to venture out into the wider libertarian world, Lindsey would find a plethora of scholarship on the issue of common law jurisprudence. Edward Stringham edited an entire collection of scholarly articles regarding anarchic legal theory. Bruce Benson has been conducting scholarship in this field since the 1980s, and his work The Enterprise of Law details the centuries-long Anglo-Saxon history of private dispute adjudication (this work is nearly three decades old, so it may be fair that Lindsey has not yet had time to read it). Even one of the Cato Institutes own senior fellows, John Hasnas, has written a great deal on the establishment of common law through the tort system!
Common law systems throughout history do not address rights violations in a uniform way, and it would be absurd to suggest that any theoretical system of private courts would do so either. However, what can be said is that in the absence of a coercive government, courts will manifest, there will exist an avenue for bringing perceived rights violations in front of an arbiter, and there will be a mechanism through which restitution can be enforced. Lindsey is perplexed by the fact that natural rights doctrines fail to determine the nuances of questions such as the specific boundaries of property rights (in a previous article attacking the Non-Aggression Principle, he asks How far below the surface should property rights in land extend? How high into the sky?), the extent to which a person may lawfully go in defending his or her property, or the precise magnitude of restitution paid to a victim in specific circumstances. These questions, of course, cannot be answered through natural rights theory (except for maybe the property rights one), but it is not a failure of the concept of natural rights that it cannot answer questions that lie beyond its scope! Such questions can only be answered by the individual arbiters in a given system (anarchic or not), and in the case of private law, a natural rights libertarian is in the position to contract with arbitration firms that best conform to libertarian ethics.
This last point was addressed in a simple but profound article by Ben Powell. In You Are an Anarchist. The Question Is How Often? Dr. Powell points out that, even for people who are classically liberal for natural rights reasons, No system will perfect human morality. And, because it is costly to monitor and prevent deviant behavior, some such behavior will exist under any governance system. So even a well-functioning anarchy would still have rights violations. The question remains one of comparative institutions. It would be nave to assume that even the purist libertarian political system (say, anarchy) would usher in a state of perfect and universal adherence to the Non-Aggression Principle; nirvana is not for this world. Muggers will still mug, and killers will still kill. The question is not how do we avoid these rights violations completely? The question is merely what society would best deal with them? What society would minimize rights violations? The natural rights philosophy does not give us the answers to how all the precise nuances of a legal structure will manifest, but it does give us a means of judging whatever legal systems emerge in the absence of government.
But to even ask these questions, one must first establish and defend the concept of rights at all. The libertarians who adhere to natural rights doctrines are simply arguing that in order to make the world we inhabit a better place, we have to have some means of establishing what that actually is, and that necessitates an ethical philosophy. These libertarians are not arguing for natural rights because they are libertarian; rather, they are libertarian because they recognize natural rights. Ignoring these ethics does not make libertarianism more practical, it just eliminates libertarianism altogether. All that is left in Brink Lindseys pragmatic world is the arbitrary political position that government should be smaller to some vague extent, and this would be good for reasons we have no means of offering.
Only in the world of Brink Lindsey is this approach to libertarianism more determinate than the philosophy of natural rights.
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Natural-Law Libertarianism And The Pursuit Of Justice - The Liberty Conservative
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Trump, May, and Autocratic Libertarianism – Bright Green
Posted: at 1:42 am
A section of the cover of Hobbes Leviathan with engraving by Abraham Bosse, 1651. Image via Wikipedia.
At first glance the fact that Donald Trump and Theresa Mays neo-Conservative agenda mixes a libertarian ideology with a strong authoritarian streak seems contradictory. In the United States we see Trump using an autocratic executive order to mandate that two rules for business must be repealed for each new one enacted in Congress. In Britain a similar mantra of a bonfire of red tape is accompanied by the attempt to use the Royal Prerogative to force through Brexit decisions. But autocracy was built into Libertarianism when it first appeared centuries ago!
It is not just in religious texts that people die and get buried only to be resurrected and live a far more celebrated second life; or at least their works do. It happened to the composer J.S. Bach, whose music disappeared for over a century before it was resurrected by Felix Mendelssohn in the mid Nineteenth Century. It also happened to a man who died just before Bach was born, the seventeenth century political philosopher Thomas Hobbes.
Ironically for one of the founders of liberal and libertarian thinking, (along with John Locke) a primary aim of Hobbes was a defence of sovereign power and autocratic government. Hobbes works include Leviathan, published in 1651 in which he developed his Social Contract Theory.
His efforts were largely aimed at opposing the radical politics which emerged during the English Civil War of the previous decade (partly as a result of the radical Leveller group) and the theories of the High Republicans during the English Commonwealth of the early 1650s (1).
Strangely, although Hobbes ideas were applicable to a Royalist settlement as well as the Council of State of their bitter opponent Parliamentarian Oliver Cromwell, both sides found his views unpalatable. So, just like the work of the composer Bach, Hobbes theories fell into obscurity for over a century to be revived during the debate over American Independence in the 1770s.
So what lay behind Hobbes insistence on an absolute monarch? It comes from Hobbes concept of society which viewed people atomistically, in perpetual motion trying to gain economic advantage and influence over each other. From this a natural structure to society emerges with individuals all seeking their own best interests.
But if society is of this nature, what stops it falling apart in some kind of anarchic fight for ultimate power? Why, none other than a universally accepted absolute sovereign charged with passing and enforcing laws to ensure the continued health of the competitive system.
To keep the sovereign above the throng he or she would have the power to appoint their successor (what better than the eldest son!). Importantly, the Sovereign was not necessarily an individual in the Hobbes system, but could also be an elite ruling group or even, surprisingly, a democratically chosen chamber. What concerned Hobbes was not so much the source of the power but the absolute manner in which it was wielded.
Hobbes claimed that the legitimacy for his theory came from the freedoms which man possessed in the state of nature. But as C. B. MacPherson showed in his book Possessive Individualism, this was a fallacy.
What Hobbes did was to take the contemporary mid-seventeenth century English economic structure of small traders and freelancers and hypothesize how they would behave if laws were removed. Crucially, his version of liberty rested on the fact that a person is free to the extent that he/she is not constrained by laws; the Sovereign is there merely for the stability of society and the health of a free market.
For Hobbes, so-called freedom by non-interference was key and as freedom is maximised when the number and extent of laws are minimised, it is actually irrelevant whether the laws are passed by an elected chamber or an absolute monarch. The idea of liberty through non-interference, also expounded by John Locke, was later developed by Jeremy Bentham and became the prevalent view which still dominates today.
But it turns out that this idea of liberty is not nearly strong enough and not only must there be non-interference, but there must be no possibility of interference (so-called non-domination). Furthermore, the state itself must also be free, prevented from being subverted by individual or sectarian interests. In this view a sovereign must be restrained from creating arbitrary laws to their own advantage or blocking new laws to extend liberty in some facet of society.
Thus to a modern day British Republican (and more widely to any real Democrat as a believer of rule by the people) the mere existence of the Royal Prerogative along with Royal Assent (though not used since 1707) and Queens Consent which can be used to prevent debate in the House of Commons is unacceptable. As Philip Pettit in his book Republicanism writes:
Liberty as non-domination republican liberty had not only been lost to political thinkers and activists; it had even become invisible to the historians of political thought.
As activists we need to recover this idea of republican liberty. Remember that the theory calls for the wielding of absolute power (or as close as we can get in the form of Prerogative or Executive Order). Although Hobbes can be seen as the progenitor of the concept, modern Libertarians are actually critical of Trump and May, viewing the size of the Government they propose as being far too large. Nevertheless the autocratic Libertarian elements of both leaders must be opposed for a compassionate and fair society with effective individual rights to survive. The recent debacle suffered by Theresa may in this General Election greatly increases the chances of a successful outcome in the near future. But the ideology is as old as the hills and we can be certain that sooner or later it will flourish again.
Notes
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Trump, May, and Autocratic Libertarianism - Bright Green
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