Category Archives: Genetic Engineering

While scientific progress on molecular biology has a great potential to increase our understanding of nature and provide new medical tools, it should not be used as justification to turn the environment into a giant genetic experiment by commercial interests. The biodiversity and environmental integrity of the world's food supply is too important to our survival to be put at risk. What's wrong with genetic engineering (GE)?

Genetic engineering enables scientists to create plants, animals and micro-organisms by manipulating genes in a way that does not occur naturally.

These genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can spread through nature and interbreed with natural organisms, thereby contaminating non 'GE' environments and future generations in an unforeseeable and uncontrollable way.

Their release is 'genetic pollution' and is a major threat because GMOs cannot be recalled once released into the environment.

Because of commercial interests, the public is being denied the right to know about GE ingredients in the food chain, and therefore losing the right to avoid them despite the presence of labelling laws in certain countries.

Biological diversity must be protected and respected as the global heritage of humankind, and one of our world's fundamental keys to survival. Governments are attempting to address the threat of GE with international regulations such as the Biosafety Protocol.

April 2010: Farmers, environmentalists and consumers from all over Spain demonstrate in Madrid under the slogan "GMO-free agriculture." They demand the Government to follow the example of countries like France, Germany or Austria, and ban the cultivation of GM maize in Spain.

GMOs should not be released into the environment since there is not an adequate scientific understanding of their impact on the environment and human health.

We advocate immediate interim measures such as labelling of GE ingredients, and the segregation of genetically engineered crops and seeds from conventional ones.

We also oppose all patents on plants, animals and humans, as well as patents on their genes. Life is not an industrial commodity. When we force life forms and our world's food supply to conform to human economic models rather than their natural ones, we do so at our own peril.

Here is the original post:

Genetic Engineering | Greenpeace International

Written by Patrick Dixon

Futurist Keynote Speaker: Posts, Slides, Videos - Biotechnology, Genetics, Gene Therapy, Stem Cells

Genetic engineering is the alteration of genetic code by artificial means, and is therefore different from traditional selective breeding.

Genetic engineering examples include taking the gene that programs poison in the tail of a scorpion, and combining it with a cabbage. These genetically modified cabbages kill caterpillers because they have learned to grow scorpion poison (insecticide) in their sap.

Genetic engineering also includes insertion of human genes into sheep so that they secrete alpha-1 antitrypsin in their milk - a useful substance in treating some cases of lung disease.

Genetic engineering has created a chicken with four legs and no wings.

Genetic engineering has created a goat with spider genes that creates "silk" in its milk.

Genetic engineering works because there is one language of life: human genes work in bacteria, monkey genes work in mice and earthworms. Tree genes work in bananas and frog genes work in rice. There is no limit in theory to the potential of genetic engineering.

Genetic engineering has given us the power to alter the very basis of life on earth.

Genetic engineering has been said to be no different than ancient breeding methods but this is untrue. For a start, breeding or cross-breeding, or in-breeding (for example to make pedigree dogs) all work by using the same species. In contrast genetic engineering allows us to combine fish, mouse, human and insect genes in the same person or animal.

Genetic engineering therefore has few limits - except our imagination, and our moral or ethical code.

Genetic engineering makes the whole digital revolution look nothing. Digital technology changes what we do. Genetic engineering has the power to change who we are.

Human cloning is a type of genetic engineering, but is not the same as true genetic manipulation. In human cloning, the aim is to duplicate the genes of an existing person so that an identical set is inside a human egg. The result is intended to be a cloned twin, perhaps of a dead child. Genetic engineering in its fullest form would result in the child produced having unique genes - as a result of laboratory interference, and therefore the child will not be an identikit twin.

Genetic engineering could create crops that grow in desert heat, or without fertiliser. Genetic engineering could make bananas or other fruit which contain vaccines or other medical products.

Genetic engineering will alter the basis of life on earth - permanently - unless controlled. This could happen if - say - mutant viruses, or bacteria, or fish or reptiles are released into the general environment.

READ FREE BOOK on Genetic Engineering - by Patrick Dixon, author of 16 books and creator of this website - read now: Chapters 1 and 2 explain basics in way which is easy to understand.

Related news items:

Newer news items:

Older news items:

Thanks for promoting with Facebook LIKE or Tweet. Really interested to hear your views. Post below.

Javacript is required for help and viewing images.

Reply to Captain K-Baby Jr. VIII

Reply to Allison Anderson 😀

Reply to Mitocondria Planterium

Reply to Mitocondria Planterium

Reply to Mitocondria Planterium

Reply to krishtika pillay

Reply to krishtika pillay

Reply to krishtika pillay

1

See original here:

Genetic Engineering: What is Genetic Engineering?

"Genetic Engineering" is a song by British band Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, released as the first single from their fourth studio album Dazzle Ships. Frontman Andy McCluskey has noted that the song is not an attack on genetic engineering, as many assumed at the time, including veteran radio presenter Dave Lee Travis upon playing the song on BBC Radio 1. McCluskey stated: "I was very positive about the subject. People didn't listen to the lyrics...I think they automatically assumed it would be anti."[2]

Charting at number 20 on the UK Singles Chart, "Genetic Engineering" ended the band's run of four consecutive Top 10 hits in the UK. It was also a Top 20 hit in several European territories, and peaked at number 5 in Spain. It missed the United States Billboard Hot 100 but made number 32 on the Mainstream Rock chart. US critic Ned Raggett retrospectively lauded the "soaring", "enjoyable" single in a positive review of Dazzle Ships for AllMusic, asserting: "Why it wasn't a hit remains a mystery."[3]

Critics in prominent music publications have suggested that the first 45 seconds of the song were a direct influence on Radiohead's "Fitter Happier", which appears on that band's 1997 album OK Computer.[3][4][5] Theon Weber in Stylus argued that the Radiohead track is "deeply indebted" to "Genetic Engineering".[4] The synthesized speech featured on the track is taken from a Speak & Spell, an educational electronic toy developed by Texas Instruments in the 1970s intended to teach children with spelling.

The new song "4-Neu" was featured on the B side of both the 7" and 12" versions. The song was not included on the Dazzle Ships album and remained exclusive to this release until its inclusion in the Navigation: The OMD B-Sides album in 2001 and then on the remastered special edition of Dazzle Ships in 2008. The song continues the band's tradition of including more experimental tracks as B sides to singles. The song title is a tribute to 70's German band Neu!, a Krautrock band that were an important influence on Andy McCluskey and Paul Humphreys prior to OMD.[6] "4-Neu" was never performed live until the special performance of Dazzle Ships at The Museum of Liverpool in November 2014 and at the Dazzle Ships / Architecture & Morality live performances in London and Germany in May 2016.[7]

Side one

Side two

Side one

Side two

A promotional video for Genetic Engineering was made and is included on the Messages - Greatest Hits CD/DVD release (2008).

Apart from the extended '312mm version' the band also recorded the song for a John Peel radio session in 1983. This version was made available on the Peel Sessions 1979-1983 album release (2000).

OMD played the song live on The Tube during its first series in February 1983.

The song was performed live during the Dazzle Ships promotional tour but rarely since then, until more recent live performances shows in 2014 and 2016.[12]

"Genetic Engineering" was covered by indie rock band Eggs and released as a single in 1994.[13]

It was also covered by Another Sunny Day as a limited edition single in 1989 and as an extra track on the re-release of on their 'London Weekend' album.

Optiganally Yours recorded a cover for a "very low-key tribute compilation".[14]

More recently, it has been covered by the indie rock band Oxford Collapse as part of the Hann-Byrd EP released in 2008.

Read more:

Genetic Engineering (song) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

New section started specially for students (Sep 2007) All useful study materials will be found there

As we have learnt that many students are using our website, we are just starting a students section. There you will find this and other documents of special value for writing your reports and theses.

What is Genetic Engineering?A simple introduction

This text is written so that even you who have forgotten much of what you may have learned about genetics will understand it. Therefore, the description is as simple as possible (some details of minor importance have been omitted or simplified).

If you want a very brief overview, go to "A first introduction to genetic engineering".

If you only want to rapidly get an idea of the great difference between mating and genetic engineering, see the "at a glance" illustration (elementary level)

Contents

1. The hereditary substance

The hereditary substance, DNA is what is manipulated by Genetic Engineering, below called GE.

DNA contains a complete set of information determining the structure and function of a living organism, be it a bacterium, a plant or a human being. DNA constitutes the genes, which in turn are found in the chromosomes in the cell nucleus.

For schematic picture of the spiral-formed DNA-moleculse click here: DNA

DNA is a very long string of "code words", arranged in an orderly sequence. It contains the instructions for creating all the proteins in the body.

Proteins are truly remarkable molecules. They can have many different properties. All the various tissues in the body are mainly made of proteins. Likewise all kinds of regulatory substances like enzymes, hormones and signal substances. There are many other proteins like for example different substances protecting from infection like antibodies.

The properties of a protein are entirely decided by its form, which is decided by the sequence of its building blocks, the amino acids. The set of code words required to describe one protein is called a "gene"

The DNA-protein system is an ingeniously simple and extremely powerful solution for creating all kinds of biological properties and structures. Just by varying the sequence of code words in the DNA, innumerable variations of proteins with very disparate properties can be obtained, sufficient to generate the enormous variety of biological life. For more about it, see "The cell - a miracle of cooperation"[EL]

If you want to know more about DNA, you could look up:

2. Mating - natural recombination of hereditary information

Through mating, the DNA of two parents is combined.

This can be described in a simplified way like this:

In plants and animals, the DNA is not just one long string of "codewords". It is divided into a set of strings called chromosomes. Commonly, each cell has a double set of chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father.

In the germinal cells (the cells involved in mating), however, there is just one set. In mating, the set of the mother and father join together to create an embryonic cell with a double set of chromosomes. This embryonic cell divides into two identical copies. These divide in turn. In this way the whole organism will come to contain identical sets of chromosomes (the reason that the tissues have different properties in different parts of the grown up body is that different genes are active in them).

Mating summarized in a simple illustration

(The DNA of plants and animals contains hundreds of millions of "code syllables". To represent the complete set of information, each circle below would correspond to about 30 million code syllables. In the illustration below, each circle represents 300 code syllables. One code word, corresponding to one amino acid, contains three code syllables. One gene contains at an average about 1000 code words. The genes are about 3% of all DNA)

(The names of the colors have been written to simplify for those with color blindness)

A DNA string (part of a chromosome) in the germ cell of the mother (green):

The corresponding DNA string in the germ cell of the father (blue) :

(The syllables A and Z are just symbolical to mark the beginning and end of the two corresponding DNA strings).

Through mating, the strings are combined to create the DNA of the body cells:

The combined DNA in the offspring (one green and one blue string):

So in mating, there occurs no manipulation of the natural and orderly sequence of code words and sets of code words, the genes.

3. Genetic engineering, an artificial manipulation of genes

In genetic engineering, one gene or most commonly, a set of a few genes is taken out of the DNA of one organism and inserted into the DNA of another organism. This we call the "insertion package" illustrated in red:

Insertion package (red):

o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o

This insertion package is inserted into the DNA of the recipient organism.

DNA of the recipient before insertion:

There is no way to make a gene insert in a predetermined location. So the insertion is completely haphazard. Below the insertion package (red) has happened to become inserted in the chromosome string stemming from the mother (green):

DNA of the recipient after insertion:

This means that the sequential order of the genetic code of the mother string has been disrupted by a sequence of codes that are completely out of place. This may have several serious consequences as you find more about in "Is Genetic Engineering a variety of breeding?"[ML].

4. The difference between mating and genetic engineering at a glance

In mating a chromosome from the mother, o-o-o-o (green ) is combined with a chromosome of the father, o-o-o-o (blue). The sequence of DNA "code words" in each chromosome remains unchanged. And the chromosomes remain stable. The mating mechanism has been developed over billions of years and yields stable and reliable results.

Mating:

Genetic engineering:

In genetic engineering, a set of foreign genes, o-o-o-o (red) is inserted haphazardly in the midst of the sequence of DNA "code words" (in this case in the DNA inherited from the mother [green])). The insertion disrupts the ordinary command code sequence in the DNA. This disruption may disturb the functioning of the cell in unpredictable and potentially hazardous ways. The insertion may make the chromosome unstable in an unpredictable way.

A second fundamental difference is that, in genetic engineering, special constructs of genetic material derived from viruses and bacteria are added to the "desired gene". These constructs don't exist in natural food. They are needed for three major purposes:

These constructs may cause trouble of various kinds. See e.g.:

For more about how these constructs work, see: "How are genes engineered" [ML] Explains the technique of Genetic Engineering.

The key assumption of genetic engineering is that you can "tailor" organisms by adding genes with desirable properties. But science has found that genes don't work as isolated carriers of properties. Instead the effects of every gene is the outcome of interaction with its environment. The situation is succinctly summarized by Dr Craig Venter:

"In everyday language the talk is about a gene for this and a gene for that. We are now finding that that is rarely so. The number of genes that work in that way can almost be counted on your fingers, because we are just not hard-wired in that way."

"You cannot define the function of genes without defining the influence of the environment. The notion that one gene equals one disease, or that one gene produces one key protein, is flying out of the window."

Dr. J. Craig Venter, Time's Scientist of the year (2000). President of the Celera Corporation. Dr. Venter is recognized as one of the two most important scientists in the worldwide effort to map the human genome.

Source: Times, Monday February 12, 2001 "Why you can't judge a man by his genes" http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/0,,2-82213,00.html

This is further explained in "The new understanding of genes" [ML].

Conclusion

So technically, genetic engineering is an unnatural insertion of a foreign sequence of genetic codes in the midst of the orderly sequence of genetic codes of the recipient, developed through millions of years. In addition, powerful artificial genetic constructs are added with potentially problematic effects. This is a profound intervention with unpredictable consequences:

"Up to now, living organisms have evolved very slowly, and new forms have had plenty of time to settle in. Now whole proteins will be transposed overnight into wholly new associations, with consequences no one can foretell, either for the host organism, or their neighbors.... going ahead in this direction may be not only unwise, but dangerous. Potentially, it could breed new animal and plant diseases, new sources of cancer, novel epidemics."

Dr. George Wald. Nobel Laureate in Medicine 1967. Higgins Professor of Biology, Harvard University. (From: 'The Case against Genetic Engineering' by George Wald, in The Recombinant DNA Debate, Jackson and Stich, Eds. P. 127-128. ; Reprinted from The Sciences, Sept./Oct. 1976 issue)

To Students Section

View original post here:
What is Genetic Engineering? - An elementary introduction ...

Genetic modification caused by human activity has been occurring since around 12,000 BC, when humans first began to domesticate organisms. Genetic engineering as the direct transfer of DNA from one organism to another was first accomplished by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. The first genetically modified animal was a mouse created in 1973 by Rudolf Jaenisch. In 1983 an antibiotic resistant gene was inserted into tobacco, leading to the first genetically engineered plant. Advances followed that allowed scientists to manipulate and add genes to a variety of different organism and induce a range of different effects.

In 1976 the technology was commercialised, with the advent of genetically modified bacteria that produced somatostatin, followed by insulin in 1978. Plants were first commercialised with virus resistant tobacco released in China in 1992. The first genetically modified food was the Flavr Savr tomato marketed in 1994. By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialized biotech crops. In 2000 a paper published in Science introduced golden rice, the first food developed with increased nutrient value.

Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using certain biotechnology techniques that have only existed since the 1970s.[2] Human directed genetic manipulation was occurring much earlier, beginning with the domestication of plants and animals through artificial selection. The dog is believed to be the first animal domesticated, possibly arising from a common ancestor of the grey wolf,[1] with archeologically evidence dating to about 12,000 BC.[3] Other carnivores domesticated in prehistoric times include the cat, which cohabited with human 9 500 years ago.[4] Archeologically evidence suggests sheep, cattle, pigs and goats were domesticated between 9 000 BC and 8 000 BC in the Fertile Crescent.[5]

The first evidence of plant domestication comes from emmer and einkorn wheat found in pre-Pottery Neolithic A villages in Southwest Asia dated about 10,500 to 10,100 BC. The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia, Egypt, and India were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea and several regions of the Americas.[7] The eight Neolithic founder crops (emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax) had all appeared by about 7000 BC.[8]Horticulture first appears in the Levant during the Chalcolithic period about 6 800 to 6,300 BC. Due to the soft tissues, archeological evidence for early vegetables is scarce. The earliest vegetable remains have been found in Egyptian caves that date back to the 2nd millennium BC.

Selective breeding of domesticated plants was once the main way early farmers shaped organisms to suit their needs. Charles Darwin described three types of selection: methodical selection, wherein humans deliberately select for particular characteristics; unconscious selection, wherein a characteristic is selected simply because it is desirable; and natural selection, wherein a trait that helps an organism survive better is passed on.[11]:25 Early breeding relied on unconscious and natural selection. The introduction of methodical selection is unknown.[11]:25 Common characteristics that were bred into domesticated plants include grains that did not shatter to allow easier harvesting, uniform ripening, shorter lifespans that translate to faster growing, loss of toxic compounds, and productivity.[11]:2730 Some plants, like the Banana, were able to be propagated by vegetative cloning. Offspring often did not contain seeds, and therefore sterile. However, these offspring were usually juicier and larger. Propagation through cloning allows these mutant varieties to be cultivated despite their lack of seeds.[11]:31

Hybridization was another way that rapid changes in plant's makeup were introduced. It often increased vigor in plants, and combined desirable traits together. Hybridization most likely first occurred when humans first grew similar, yet slightly different plants in close proximity.[11]:32Triticum aestivum, wheat used in baking bread, is an allopolyploid. Its creation is the result of two separate hybridization events.[12]

X-rays were first used to deliberately mutate plants in 1927. Between 1927 and 2007, more than 2,540 genetically mutated plant varieties had been produced using x-rays.[13]

Various genetic discoveries have been essential in the development of genetic engineering. Genetic inheritance was first discovered by Gregor Mendel in 1865 following experiments crossing peas. Although largely ignored for 34 years he provided the first evidence of hereditary segregation and independent assortment.[14] In 1889 Hugo de Vries came up with the name "(pan)gene" after postulating that particles are responsible for inheritance of characteristics[15] and the term "genetics" was coined by William Bateson in 1905.[16] In 1928 Frederick Griffith proved the existence of a "transforming principle" involved in inheritance, which Avery, MacLeod and McCarty later (1944) identified as DNA. Edward Lawrie Tatum and George Wells Beadle developed the central dogma that genes code for proteins in 1941. The double helix structure of DNA was identified by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.

As well as discovering how DNA works, tools had to be developed that allowed it to be manipulated. In 1970 Hamilton Smiths lab discovered restriction enzymes that allowed DNA to be cut at specific places and separated out on an electrophoresis gel. This enabled scientists to isolate genes from an organism's genome.[17]DNA ligases, that join broken DNA together, had been discovered earlier in 1967[18] and by combining the two enzymes it was possible to "cut and paste" DNA sequences to create recombinant DNA. Plasmids, discovered in 1952,[19] became important tools for transferring information between cells and replicating DNA sequences. Frederick Sanger developed a method for sequencing DNA in 1977, greatly increasing the genetic information available to researchers. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), developed by Kary Mullis in 1983, allowed small sections of DNA to be amplified and aided identification and isolation of genetic material.

As well as manipulating the DNA, techniques had to be developed for its insertion (known as transformation) into an organism's genome. Griffiths experiment had already shown that some bacteria had the ability to naturally uptake and express foreign DNA. Artificial competence was induced in Escherichia coli in 1970 when Morton Mandel and Akiko Higa showed that it could take up bacteriophage after treatment with calcium chloride solution (CaCl2).[20] Two years later, Stanley Cohen showed that CaCl2 treatment was also effective for uptake of plasmid DNA.[21] Transformation using electroporation was developed in the late 1980s, increasing the efficiency and bacterial range.[22] In 1907 a bacterium that caused plant tumors, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, was discovered and in the early 1970s the tumor inducing agent was found to be a DNA plasmid called the Ti plasmid.[23] By removing the genes in the plasmid that caused the tumor and adding in novel genes researchers were able to infect plants with A. tumefaciens and let the bacteria insert their chosen DNA into the genomes of the plants.[24]

In 1972 Paul Berg utilised restriction enzymes and DNA ligases to create the first recombinant DNA molecules. He combined DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus.[25]Herbert Boyer and Stanley N. Cohen took Berg's work a step further and introduced recombinant DNA into a bacterial cell. Cohen was researching plasmids, while Boyers work involved restriction enzymes. They recognised the complementary nature of their work and teamed up in 1972. Together they found a restriction enzyme that cut the pSC101 plasmid at a single point and were able to insert and ligate a gene that conferred resistance to the kanamycin antibiotic into the gap. Cohen had previously devised a method where bacteria could be induced to take up a plasmid and using this they were able to create a bacteria that survived in the presence of the kanamycin. This represented the first genetically modified organism. They repeated experiments showing that other genes could be expressed in bacteria, including one from the toad Xenopus laevis, the first cross kingdom transformation.[26][27][28]

In 1973 Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the worlds first transgenic animal.[29] Jaenisch was studying mammalian cells infected with simian virus 40 (SV40) when he happened to read a paper from Beatrice Mintz describing the generation of chimera mice. He took his SV40 samples to Mintz's lab and injected them into early mouse embryos expecting tumours to develop. The mice appeared normal, but after using radioactive probes he discovered that the virus had integrated itself into the mice genome.[30] However the mice did not pass the transgene to their offspring. In 1981 the laboratories of Frank Ruddle, Frank Constantini and Elizabeth Lacy injected purified DNA into a single-cell mouse embryo and showed transmission of the genetic material to subsequent generations.[31][32]

The first genetically engineered plant was tobacco, reported in 1983.[33] It was developed by Michael W. Bevan, Richard B. Flavell and Mary-Dell Chilton by creating a chimeric gene that joined an antibiotic resistant gene to the T1 plasmid from Agrobacterium. The tobacco was infected with Agrobacterium transformed with this plasmid resulting in the chimeric gene being inserted into the plant. Through tissue culture techniques a single tobacco cell was selected that contained the gene and a new plant grown from it.[34]

The development of genetic engineering technology led to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks. The development of a regulatory framework concerning genetic engineering began in 1975, at Asilomar, California. The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of guidelines regarding the cautious use of recombinant technology and any products resulting from that technology.[35] The Asilomar recommendations were voluntary, but in 1976 the US National Institute of Health (NIH) formed a recombinant DNA advisory committee.[36] This was followed by other regulatory offices (the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA)), effectively making all recombinant DNA research tightly regulated in the USA.[37]

In 1982 the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) released a report into the potential hazards of releasing genetically modified organisms into the environment as the first transgenic plants were being developed.[38] As the technology improved and genetically organisms moved from model organisms to potential commercial products the USA established a committee at the Office of Science and Technology (OSTP) to develop mechanisms to regulate the developing technology.[37] In 1986 the OSTP assigned regulatory approval of genetically modified plants in the US to the USDA, FDA and EPA.[39] In the late 1980s and early 1990s, guidance on assessing the safety of genetically engineered plants and food emerged from organizations including the FAO and WHO.[40][41][42][43]

The European Union first introduced laws requiring GMO's to be labelled in 1997.[44] In 2013 Connecticut became the first state to enacted a labeling law in the USA, although it would not take effect until other states followed suit.[45]

The ability to insert, alter or remove genes in model organisms allowed scientists to study the genetic elements of human diseases.[46]Genetically modified mice were created in 1984 that carried cloned oncogenes that predisposed them to developing cancer.[47] The technology has also been used to generate mice with genes knocked out. The first recorded knockout mouse was created by Mario R. Capecchi, Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies in 1989. In 1992 oncomice with tumor suppressor genes knocked out were generated.[47] Creating Knockout rats is much harder and only became possible in 2003.[48][49]

After the discovery of microRNA in 1993,[50]RNA interference (RNAi) has been used to silence an organism's genes.[51] By modifying an organism to express mircoRNA targeted to its endogenous genes, researchers have been able to knockout or partially reduce gene function in a range of species. The ability to partially reduce gene function has allowed the study of genes that are lethal when completely knocked out. Other advantages of using RNAi include the availability of inducible and tissue specific knockout.[52] In 2007 microRNA targeted to insect and nematode genes was expressed in plants, leading to suppression when they fed on the transgenic plant, potentially creating a new way to control pests.[53] Targeting endogenous microRNA expression has allowed further fine tuning of gene expression, supplementing the more traditional gene knock out approach.[54]

Genetic engineering has been used to produce proteins derived from humans and other sources in organisms that normally cannot synthesize these proteins. Human insulin-synthesising bacteria were developed in 1979 and were first used as a treatment in 1982.[55] In 1988 the first human antibodies were produced in plants.[56] In 2000 Vitamin A-enriched golden rice, was the first food with increased nutrient value.[57]

As not all plant cells were susceptible to infection by A. tumefaciens other methods were developed, including electroporation, micro-injection[58] and particle bombardment with a gene gun (invented in 1987).[59][60] In the 1980s techniques were developed to introduce isolated chloroplasts back into a plant cell that had its cell wall removed. With the introduction of the gene gun in 1987 it became possible to integrate foreign genes into a chloroplast.[61]

Genetic transformation has become very efficient in some model organism. In 2008 genetically modified seeds were produced in Arabidopsis thaliana by simply dipping the flowers in an Agrobacterium solution.[62] The range of plants that can be transformed has increased as tissue culture techniques have been developed for different species.

The first transgenic livestock were produced in 1985,[63] by micro-injecting foreign DNA into rabbit, sheep and pig eggs.[64] The first animal to synthesise transgenic proteins in their milk were mice,[65] engineered to produce human tissue plasminogen activator.[66] This technology was applied to sheep, pigs, cows and other livestock.[65]

In 2010 scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial genome. The researchers added the new genome to bacterial cells and selected for cells that contained the new genome. To do this the cells undergoes a process called resolution, where during bacterial cell division one new cell receives the original DNA genome of the bacteria, whilst the other receives the new synthetic genome. When this cell replicates it uses the synthetic genome as its template. The resulting bacterium the researchers developed, named Synthia, was the world's first synthetic life form.[67][68]

In 2014 a bacteria was developed that replicated a plasmid containing an unnatural base pair. This required altering the bacterium so it could import the unnatural nucleotides and then efficiently replicate them. The plasmid retained the unnatural base pairs when it doubled an estimated 99.4% of the time.[69] This is the first organism engineered to use an expanded genetic alphabet.[70]

In 2015 CRISPR and TALENs was used to modify plant genomes. Chinese labs used it to create a fungus-resistant wheat and boost rice yields, while a U.K. group used it to tweak a barley gene that could help produce drought-resistant varieties. When used to precisely remove material from DNA without adding genes from other species, the result is not subject the lengthy and expensive regulatory process associated with GMOs. While CRISPR may use foreign DNA to aid the editing process, the second generation of edited plants contain none of that DNA. Researchers celebrated the acceleration because it may allow them to "keep up" with rapidly evolving pathogens. The U.S. Department of Agriculture stated that some examples of gene-edited corn, potatoes and soybeans are not subject to existing regulations. As of 2016 other review bodies had yet to make statements.[71]

In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later and the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E.coli. Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978.[72] In 1980 the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented.[73] The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982.[74]

In 1983 a biotech company, Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS) applied for U.S. government authorization to perform field tests with the ice-minus strain of P. syringae to protect crops from frost, but environmental groups and protestors delayed the field tests for four years with legal challenges.[75] In 1987 the ice-minus strain of P. syringae became the first genetically modified organism (GMO) to be released into the environment[76] when a strawberry field and a potato field in California were sprayed with it.[77] Both test fields were attacked by activist groups the night before the tests occurred: "The world's first trial site attracted the world's first field trasher".[76]

The first genetically modified crop plant was produced in 1982, an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant.[78] The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the USA in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides.[79] In 1987 Plant Genetic Systems, founded by Marc Van Montagu and Jeff Schell, was the first company to genetically engineer insect-resistant plants by incorporating genes that produced insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) into tobacco.[80]

Genetically modified microbial enzymes were the first application of genetically modified organisms in food production and were approved in 1988 by the US Food and Drug Administration.[81] In the early 1990s, recombinant chymosin was approved for use in several countries.[81][82] Cheese had typically been made using the enzyme complex rennet that had been extracted from cows' stomach lining. Scientists modified bacteria to produce chymosin, which was also able to clot milk, resulting in cheese curds.[83] The Peoples Republic of China was the first country to commercialize transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.[84] In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life.[85] Also in 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialized in Europe.[86] In 1995 Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the USA.[87] In 1996 a total of 35 approvals had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation), with 8 different traits in 6 countries plus the EU.[79]

By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialized biotech crops and a further 31 countries had granted regulatory approval for transgenic crops to be imported.[88] In 2013 Robert Fraley (Monsantos executive vice president and chief technology officer), Marc Van Montagu and Mary-Dell Chilton were awarded the World Food Prize for improving the "quality, quantity or availability" of food in the world.[89]

The first genetically modified animal to be commercialised was the GloFish, a Zebra fish with a fluorescent gene added that allows it to glow in the dark under ultraviolet light.[90] The first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was AquAdvantage salmon in 2015.[91] The salmon were transformed with a growth hormone-regulating gene from a Pacific Chinook salmon and a promoter from an ocean pout enabling it to grow year-round instead of only during spring and summer.[92]

Opposition and support for the use of genetic engineering has existed since the technology was developed.[76] After Arpad Pusztai went public with research he was conducting in 1998 the public opposition to genetically modified food increased.[93] Opposition continued following controversial and publicly debated papers published in 1999 and 2013 that claimed negative environmental and health impacts from genetically modified crops.[94][95]

The rest is here:
History of genetic engineering - Wikipedia, the free ...

The mutations we've been discussing occur in a seemingly random manner by various mutagens. Mutation can also be caused in a very systematic way by viruses. Viruses can enter a host cell and then alter the DNA of the host cell by clipping it open and inserting new segments that will code for the viral protein, and they can do that by using the host cell's replication, transcription and translation mechanisms to create that viral protein.

This scenario is also related to the field known popularly as genetic engineering. Basically, it involves altering the DNA in a simple organism such as a bacterium in order to get the bacteria to produce a protein that it ordinarily would not produce, and this is done by snipping open a section of the bacterial DNA and inserting a gene from another organism. The technique is called gene splicing and it is often accomplished by inserting the new gene in a virus and then infecting the bacteria with the virus.

Here is one mechanism by which this can occur. Certain enzymes can open up the DNA sequence by breaking or hydrolyzing the phosphor ester bond in the DNA backbone.

In the lesson on proteins, I mentioned a disorder called diabetes, in which the messenger protein, insulin, is defective. Early treatment for this disease involved injecting insulin into patients in order to enable their cells to take up glucose. One problem with this treatment was that the only insulin available at a reasonable cost was insulin from cows. This insulin was slightly different and therefore not as effective as human insulin; moreover, some diabetics had what amounted to an allergic reaction to the foreign protein. In timet, genetic engineers were able to insert the gene for human insulin into a common bacterium called E. coli. When this bacterium was then grown in cultures, it produced vast quantities of human insulin which could be isolated fairly easily in pure form, for use by diabetics. Moreover, the human insulin was much cheaper when produced in this way than was the insulin from cows.

Another protein produced in this way is the protein interferon. When it was originally discovered, it was thought to be a potent cure for cancer and highly effective at preventing viral infection, and perhaps it might even be the long sought cure for the common cold. Unfortunately, it was incredibly expensive to isolate and available only in minute quantities. Not only was it impractical to use on a wide scale, it was not possible to do meaningful research with it, because such small amounts were available. A great deal of effort was expended to genetically alter bacteria to produce interferon. Effort which was eventually successful. Unfortunately, when sufficient quantities of interferon were produced to adequately test its abilities as an anti-cancer drug, it was found to be not nearly as effective as had been hoped.

Although genetic engineering would seem to be a marvelous new technique and it surely is that, it also has certain dangers associated with it. One problem is that when the genetic makeup of an organism is altered, it is not possible to predict exactly what the nature of that organism might be. If there is something inherently harmful about the new organism and that organism is released to the environment, the results could be disastrous. This danger is usually dealt with by using, as the host organism, a bacterium which is, somehow deficient and cannot survive outside the laboratory.

Another problem is that a future step in genetic engineering might well involve the ability to alter the genetic makeup of higher organisms, including humans. There are difficult ethical questions involved in how far we should go in changing our own genes, much less those of domestic animals.

Few, perhaps, would argue against the altering of the bone marrow cells of a person with sickle cell anemia to enable him or her to produce normal hemoglobin, a technique by the way, which has not yet been developed. But suppose we were able to genetically slow down, or even halt the aging process, alter fetal cells to produce certain desired characteristics in babies, such as hair color or intelligence, or increase the strength in athletes, or alter our own physiology to enable us to breathe under water, or even clone individuals with certain unique talents. Who should decide what kinds of changes are acceptable and who should be allowed to have their genes or those of their children altered? And what if something goes wrong with the procedure and a defective human is produced? These questions are not easy and the techniques are not without hazard.

Regarding genetic engineering:

(These questions are also given in Exercise 18 in your workbook.)

Top of Page

E-mail instructor: Sue Eggling

Clackamas Community College 2001, 2003 Clackamas Community College, Hal Bender

Here is the original post:
Genetic Engineering - Clackamas Community College

We have a right to food that is good for our bodies and our environment. Numerous studies show that genetically engineered foods can pose serious risks to both. Yet the U.S. Department of Agriculture keeps approving genetically engineered crops that benefit a few biotech corporations. At the same time, the Food and Drug Administration is considering approving the first-ever genetically engineered animal for human consumption, a genetically engineered salmon created by AquaBounty Technologies that supposedly grows twice as fast as its natural counterpart.

Friends of the Earth is working to keep this "frankenfish" and other genetically engineered foods off of grocery store shelves, and to ensure that all genetically engineered foods are labeled so that consumers can choose whether to feed these risky products to their families.

Research shows that genetically engineered fish pose numerous risks to wild fish populations. Of particular concern is the survival of natural Atlantic salmon, which is already listed as endangered. Research published by the Canadian government has found that genetically engineered salmon, if released into the wild, could lead to a collapse of wild populations. Genetically engineered salmon may be able to mate with wild populations, weakening their gene pool, and could even out-compete wild salmon for food, leading to ecosystem-wide impacts.

Human health is threatened too. The approval of the frankenfish would likely lead to the use of even more antibiotics in aquaculture, increasing the risks of drug-resistant bacteria and viruses. Farmed salmon are given more antibiotics than any other livestock by weight, and the companys data shows the frankenfish may require even more antibiotics, as the engineered fish could be more susceptible to disease.

Despite concerns raised by scientists, the FDA has not yet conducted a thorough, independent analysis of the dangers frankenfish pose to people or the environment.

We are pushing the FDA to take a rigorous look at the risks, partnering with members of Congress on laws to prevent the spread of genetically engineered foods and mandate labels and mobilizing the public to take action to protect our health, biodiversity and our right to choose healthy food. Check out our issue brief on the risks posed by genetically engineered fish to learn more.

Genetic engineering is moving beyond our food and agricultural systems. Friends of the Earth is also working to prevent the release of genetically engineered mosquitoes and other insects in the U.S. until proper laws have been written and risk assessments conducted to ensure these genetically engineered bugs don't harm humans or our ecosystems. Check out our issue brief on genetically engineered mosquitoes to learn more.

Originally posted here:
Genetic engineering - Friends of the Earth

Genetic engineering (GE), also called genetic modification, is a branch of applied biology. It is the changing of an organism's genome using biotechnology. These methods are recent discoveries. The techniques are advanced, and full details are not given here.

This is an overview of what can be done:

An organism that is altered by genetic engineering is a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs were bacteria in 1973;[2] GM mice were made in 1974. Insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982. Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, including crops.

Genetic engineering techniques have been used in research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry detergent, and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured in GM cells. GM animals such as mice or zebrafish are being used for research purposes.

Critics have objected to use of genetic engineering on several grounds, including ethical concerns, ecological concerns. Economic concerns are raised by the fact GM techniques and GM organisms are subject to intellectual property law. Ecological concerns are more subtle. There is a risk that some genetically modified (GM) organisms may be better adapted to some niche in nature, and will take away some the habitat of the regular species.

The ability to construct long base pair chains cheaply and accurately on a large scale allows researchers to do experiments on genomes that do not exist in nature. The field of 'synthetic genomics' is beginning to enter a productive stage.

The J. Craig Venter Institute has built a quasi-synthetic Mycoplasma genitalium yeast genome. They recombined 25 overlapping fragments in a single step. "The use of yeast recombination greatly simplifies the assembly of large DNA molecules from both synthetic and natural fragments".[3] Other companies, such as Synthetic Genomics, have already been formed to take advantage of the many commercial uses of custom designed genomes.

The team of about 20 researchers is led by Nobel laureate Hamilton Smith, DNA researcher Craig Venter and microbiologist Clyde A. Hutchison III. They plan to create Mycoplasma laboratorium a partially synthetic species of bacterium derived from the genome of Mycoplasma genitalium.

Geneticists have made the first synthetic chromosome for yeast.

As a eukaryote, yeast has cells with a nucleus. Often classified as a fungus, yeast is related to plants and animals and shares 2,000 genes with ourselves.

The creation of the first of yeast's 16 chromosomes has been hailed as "a massive deal" in the emerging science of synthetic biology.[4]

GMOs also are involved in controversies over GM food, as to whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether it should be labeled, and whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs. These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in most countries.

We can now produce and use GM and GE seeds. Some large countries like India and China have already decided that GM farming is what they need to feed their populations. Other countries are still debating the issue.[5] This debate involves scientists, farmers, politicians, companies and UN agencies. Even those involved in the production of GM seedlings are not in total agreement.[5]

Excerpt from:
Genetic engineering - Simple English Wikipedia, the free ...

Although not completely related to genetic disorders, genetic engineering has its applications in genetic diseases area. In the world around us today, thanks to the progress of science and technology, man has to a large extent taken the responsibility of shaping as well as the mutating the natural world around us in a way that can prove to be more profitable to all of us. Genetic Engineering is, in, such a scenario, a tool that is gradually coming in more and more focus as a means of shaping the world to map to our needs and requirements.

Where can we see genetic engineering around us today?

While going out for grocery shopping, we often come across fruits, vegetables, as well as cereals, all of which have been genetically engineered or modified to mutate their nature structure in order to make them more hygienic, more palatable as well as more nutritious. In some cases, the use of genetic engineering is also conducted to remove the harmful ingredients of a substance in order to make it more accessible for people who have certain maladies. An example of this could be genetically engineered potatoes in which the sugar content has been removed to allow them to be consumed by diabetics.

However, the use of genetic engineering can have certain pitfalls and negative aspects as well, which has led to a huge debate world wide amongst scientists and technologists.

What is genetic engineering?

The DNA can be said to be the main point of origin of the living body which is in actuality a sort of blue print which allows the shaping and growth of every aspect of a living organism. Through the process of genetic engineering, the DNA of the living body is transformed and mutated by scientists, who can, through this process engineer the growth as well as the different qualities and characteristics which make up the living being.

How is genetic engineering different from the process of traditional breeding?

The science of genetic engineering has often been compared to other and older versions of the process such as traditional breeding of cells. However, the most important difference between the two processes of genetic engineering as well as the traditional breeding process is the fact that in the case of the process of traditional breeding, the mutation of the genes of the living organism is carried out as an external process.

However, in the case of the more recent processes of genetic engineering, the cells of the living organisms are mutated, modified, created or destroyed while they are within the organism itself. These processes are in turn dependent on the twin processes of molecular cloning as well as transformation, through which the qualities of the genes of the organism are transformed to add or destroy the natural characteristics of the organism.

Can genetic engineering be used in the cases of human beings?

Though the field of the studies associated with human genetic engineering is an extremely vibrant one and studies are still on to discover more facets to it, the field today has shown immense potential in displaying an ability to cure several diseases which are associated with or formed due to an abnormality or deficiency in the structure of the human genes.

Genetic engineering can be seen to have the potential to cure several diseases and also act as a medium in order to change an individuals appearance, voice, intelligence, behavior as well as his or her characteristics.

How is genetic engineering carried out in the case of human beings?

The science of human genetic engineering works by using various scientific processes to modify or transform the genotype of the individual by selecting and opting for a specific phenotype of the human being in the case of infants as well as new born babies. On the other hand, in the cases of matured adults, the science aims to change the natural phenotype of the individual with a phenotype that has been customized.

Advantages of using genetic engineering

Though there are several debates which are raging all around the world both for and against the science of human genetic engineering, the advantages of using human genetic engineering in the process of curing several presently incurable diseases which stem from the human genetic structure cannot be ruled out. If used properly, the science of human genetic engineering can help in curing diseases such as:

Besides this, the science can also be used to ensure that all babies are born healthy as any form of genetic disorder observed in the fetus can be cured before the baby is born.

Disadvantages of using genetic engineering

There are also several disadvantages which are associated with the science of genetic engineering. Notable among this is the fact that while using this, man will again be a product of mechanics and science. Out individuality will be lost. Besides this, the process can be quite expensive and many third world countries may not be bale to use this even for treating critically ill patients.

Read more from the original source:
Genetic Engineering - Genetic Diseases

NATIONAL

October 30, 2013 | By Maria L. La Ganga

SEATTLE - A year after Proposition 37 narrowly failed in California, the labeling of genetically engineered foods is back on the ballot in Washington state, complete with a lawsuit by the state attorney general, a barrage of ads and a stark example of money's effect on politics. I-522, as it is called, officially became the most expensive initiative battle in Washington history this week, with a not-so-Washington twist. Out-of-state money is driving the debate. Of the $33 million raised to fight the labeling effort, about $10,000 came from donors within the state - making up just 0.03% of the "no" campaign war chest.

OPINION

August 30, 2013 | By Henry I. Miller

Americans might soon need to get used to apple or grape juice as their breakfast drink of choice - unless, that is, they're willing to pay exorbitant prices for orange juice. Or maybe scientists, plant breeders and farmers will manage to save the day, using two critical but often-disparaged technologies: chemical pesticides in the short run and genetic engineering in the longer term. The pestilence that is devastating Florida citrus is a disease called citrus greening. It is caused by a bacterium, Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus , which is spread by small insects called psyllids.

NEWS

June 17, 2013 | By Karin Klein

There's a dearth of evidence that genetically engineered food is dangerous to human health - but that doesn't mean consumers are wrong to have concerns about its effect on the environment and on non-bioengineered crops. U.S. agribusiness has rushed to embrace the GMO (for genetically modified organism, though genetically engineered is a more accurate term) possibilities, with almost all of our corn, soy and canola now featuring genes that have been tinkered with, usually to make them resistant to certain herbicides.

OPINION

May 24, 2013 | By The Times editorial board

The movement to force the labeling of genetically engineered food is gaining momentum. In November 2012, an initiative to require the labels in California was on the ballot; it was defeated. Now, federal legislation carried by Sen. Barbara Boxer (D-Calif.) would mandate labeling most bioengineered food nationwide. Yet the movement's argument is weakened by the lack of evidence that inserting fragments of DNA into crops harms our health. Pro-labeling activists - who also tend to be anti-Monsanto activists - point to polls finding that most Americans want the information labeled.

SCIENCE

March 23, 2013 | By Rosie Mestel, Los Angeles Times

When is a fish not a fish but a drug? When government regulators take old laws and twist themselves into knots trying to apply them to new technology. In the emotionally charged battle over the safety and appropriateness of genetically modified foods, people on both sides agree that the way the government oversees genetically modified plants and animals is patchy, inconsistent and at times just plain bizarre. Soon, analysts say, the system may be stretched to the breaking point.

NEWS

March 20, 2013 | By Monte Morin

Researchers at UCLA have genetically engineered tomatoes that, when fed to mice, mimic the beneficial qualities of good cholesterol, according to a new study. In a paper published Tuesday in the Journal of Lipid Research, authors used bacteria to insert genes into the cells of tomato plants, so that they would produce a peptide that mimics the actions of HDL, or "good" cholesterol. Later generations of those genetically engineered tomatoes were frozen, ground up and then fed to female mice who were themselves bred to be highly susceptible to LDL, or "bad" cholesterol.

Excerpt from:
Articles about Genetic Engineering - latimes