Category Archives: Space Exploration

From Cleveland to the moon and even Mars: NASA Glenn adds thrust to space exploration  cleveland.com

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From Cleveland to the moon and even Mars: NASA Glenn adds thrust to space exploration - cleveland.com

Precursors in fiction and fact

Since ancient times, people around the world have studied the heavens and used their observations and explanations of astronomical phenomena for both religious and practical purposes. Some dreamed of leaving Earth to explore other worlds. For example, the French satirist Cyrano de Bergerac in the 17th century wrote Histoire comique des tats et empires de la lune (1656) and Histoire comique des tats et empires du soleil (1662; together in English as A Voyage to the Moon: With Some Account of the Solar World, 1754), describing fictional journeys to the Moon and the Sun. Two centuries later the French author Jules Verne and the English novelist and historian H.G. Wells infused their stories with descriptions of outer space and of spaceflight that were consistent with the best understanding of the time. Vernes De la Terre la Lune (1865; From the Earth to the Moon) and Wellss The War of the Worlds (1898) and The First Men in the Moon (1901) used sound scientific principles to describe space travel and encounters with alien beings.

In order to translate these fictional images of space travel into reality, it was necessary to devise some practical means of countering the influence of Earths gravity. By the beginning of the 20th century, the centuries-old technology of rockets had advanced to the point at which it was reasonable to consider their use to accelerate objects to a velocity sufficient to enter orbit around Earth and even to escape Earths gravity and travel away from the planet.

The first person to study in detail the use of rockets for spaceflight was the Russian schoolteacher and mathematician Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. In 1903 his article Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices laid out many of the principles of spaceflight. Up to his death in 1935, Tsiolkovsky continued to publish sophisticated studies on the theoretical aspects of spaceflight. He never complemented his writings with practical experiments in rocketry, but his work greatly influenced later space and rocket research in the Soviet Union and Europe.

In the United States, Robert Hutchings Goddard became interested in space exploration after reading works such as The War of the Worlds. Even as a young man, he dedicated himself to working on spaceflight. In his 1904 high-school graduation speech, he stated that it is difficult to say what is impossible, for the dream of yesterday is the hope of today and the reality of tomorrow. Goddard received his first two patents for rocket technology in 1914, and, with funding from the Smithsonian Institution, he published a theoretical treatise, A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, in 1919. Goddards claim that rockets could be used to send objects as far as the Moon was widely ridiculed in the public press, including The New York Times (which published a retraction on July 17, 1969, the day after the launch of the first crewed mission to the Moon). Thereafter, the already shy Goddard conducted much of his work in secret, preferring to patent rather than publish his results. This approach limited his influence on the development of American rocketry, although early rocket developers in Germany took notice of his work.

In the 1920s, as a professor of physics at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, Goddard began to experiment with liquid-fueled rockets. His first rocket, launched in Auburn, Massachusetts, on March 16, 1926, rose 12.5 metres (41 feet) and traveled 56 metres (184 feet) from its launching place. The noisy character of his experiments made it difficult for Goddard to continue work in Massachusetts. With support from aviator Charles A. Lindbergh and financial assistance from the philanthropic Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics, he moved to Roswell, New Mexico, where from 1930 to 1941 he built engines and launched rockets of increasing complexity.

The third widely recognized pioneer of rocketry, Hermann Oberth, was by birth a Romanian but by nationality a German. Reading Vernes From the Earth to the Moon as a youth inspired him to study the requirements for interplanetary travel. Oberths 1922 doctoral dissertation on rocket-powered flight was rejected by the University of Heidelberg for being too speculative, but it became the basis for his classic 1923 book Die Rakete zu den Planetenrumen (The Rocket into Interplanetary Space). The work explained the mathematical theory of rocketry, applied the theory to rocket design, and discussed the possibility of constructing space stations and of traveling to other planets.

In 1929 Oberth published a second influential book, Wege zur Raumschiffahrt (Ways to Spaceflight). His works led to the creation of a number of rocket clubs in Germany as enthusiasts tried to turn Oberths ideas into practical devices. The most important of these groups historically was the Verein fr Raumschiffahrt (VfR; Society for Spaceship Travel), which had as a member the young Wernher von Braun. Although Oberths work was crucial in stimulating the development of rocketry in Germany, he himself had only a limited role in that development. Alone among the rocket pioneers, Oberth lived to see his ideas become reality: he was Brauns guest at the July 16, 1969, launch of Apollo 11.

Although Tsiolkovsky, Goddard, and Oberth are recognized as the most influential of the first-generation space pioneers, others made contributions in the early decades of the 20th century. For example, the Frenchman Robert Esnault-Pelterie began work on the theoretical aspects of spaceflight as early as 1907 and subsequently published several major books on the topic. He, like Tsiolkovsky in the Soviet Union and Oberth in Germany, was an effective publicist regarding the potential of space exploration. In Austria, Eugen Snger worked on rocket engines and in the late 1920s proposed developing a rocket plane that could reach a speed exceeding 10,000 km (more than 6,000 miles) per hour and an altitude of more than 65 km (40 miles). Interested in Sngers work, Nazi Germany in 1936 invited him to continue his investigations in that country.

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Space exploration - History of space exploration | Britannica

Skip to main content Reaching New Horizons in Space Exploration Studies

Space exploration impacts our daily life from technology advancement to medical research to scientific discoveries. Two of the astronauts who launched into space are UCF alumni: Nicole Stott 92MS and the late Fernando Frank Caldeiro 95MS. For over 50 years, the university has played a big role in educating future engineers, administrators and space explorers something we will continue over the next 50 years and more.

At the Forefront of Space Exploration

Kennedy Space Center (KSC), the countrys gateway to the universe, is only 35 miles away from UCFs main campus. Here, faculty and students have the opportunity to partake in cutting-edge efforts. In fact, UCF has had more interns than any other university at KSC. The opportunity provides students with on-the-job training, soft-skills development, and involvement in research. Some go on to convert their internships into jobs after graduation. As students look to the stars and see endless possibilities, theyre reminded how the discoveries made today and tomorrow impact future generations to come.

Two space shuttle missions. A three-month stay on the International Space Station. The 10th woman to perform a spacewalk. Nicole Stott 92 broke barriers during her time as an astronaut. From her start as an operations engineer at Kennedy Space Center, she held different positions before achieving what once seemed like a far-fetched idea: becoming an astronaut. After her last mission, Stott led several groups at NASA before stepping aside to try something new: Inspiring students to blend art with science. While sharing her love of both subjects, she spreads a motivational message that this is our planet, and we need to take care of it.

Learn about how she soared to new heights.

UCFs relationship with NASA is really providing a reservoir of scientific talent that enables the goals of our space program. That kind of talent is not found in most universities in the country.

When the U.S. returns humans to the moon in the coming years, theres a good chance that UCF research will have played a role in the return, whether from landing there safely, harvesting its resources, or training the next generation of space scientists.

The university currently has more than a dozen projects aimed at getting people back to the moon safely. The projects range from reducing the harmful effects of lunar dust to protect equipment and astronauts to developing robotics, flying and landing space craft, and mining fuel to run it all.

The work is important because the moon can be a staging ground for future space missions, such as visiting Mars or asteroids, and its ice could be turned to water thats used to hydrate astronauts or converted into hydrogen and oxygen as fuel for rockets.

Explore UCFs lunar projects

From the start of studying space to the items left on the moon and the future of space exploration, our renowned faculty and student researchers share their knowledge and expertise. Learn about the impact that space research has made here on planet Earth and discover whats still to come.

As new space programs continue to take off from the Central Florida region and beyond, students have an opportunity to break into this exciting industry with a number of space degrees offered at UCF.

Best bachelors degrees for a career in space exploration and research

Top masters and doctoral degrees for advancement in the space industry

Leading business degrees that can be applied to the space field

Nationally recognized online space degree programs

Top 20 Most Innovative University in the NationU.S. News & World Report ranks UCF as one of the most innovative in its annual list of best colleges.

Top 15 Best Atomic/Molecular Physics SchoolsU.S. News & World Report ranked UCF as one of the best Atomic/Molecular Physics schools in the nation.

Best Undergraduate Engineering ProgramUniversity of Central Florida is ranked No. 75 in Best Undergraduate Engineering Program in the nation by U.S. News & World Report.

ABET AccreditedThe Bachelor of Science programs in Aerospace Engineering and Mechanical Engineering are accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission of ABET.

View all of UCFs Best Colleges rankings.

Innovation. Access. Impact. Our integrated approach to teaching and learning prepares students for the future of work and lifelong careers, making a difference in their communities and around the world.

Aerospace and Defense

Digital Arts and Entertainment

Healthcare

Hospitality and Tourism

Modeling and Simulation

Space

Transportation Science

4000 Central Florida Blvd. Orlando, Florida, 32816 | 407.823.2000 University of Central Florida

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The Future of Space Exploration | University of Central Florida

On July 20, 1969, astronaut Neil Armstrong made one small step that forever changed history. In commemoration of the 50th Anniversary of the Apollo XI moon landing, view National Archives records that detail the carefully choreographed sequence of stepsfrom lift-off to splash-downthat resulted in the missions giant leap for mankind."

Photograph of Astronaut Edwin E. (Buzz) Aldrin, Jr. Posing on the Moon Next to the U.S. Flag. National Archives Identifier 593743.

View more films related to Space Exploration on the National Archives YouTube channel.

Help make these records related to Space Exploration more accessible by tagging and transcribing them in the National Archives Catalog. Learn more on theCitizen Archivist Dashboard

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These animated GIFs have been created from NASA records in our holdings. Explore and share more space GIFs on the National Archives GIPHY Channel!

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Space Exploration - NASA Records at the National Archives

Basis of international space law

Parties

Signatories

Non-parties

The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a multilateral treaty that forms the basis of international space law. Negotiated and drafted under the auspices of the United Nations, it was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, entering into force on 10 October 1967. As of February2022[update], 112 countries are parties to the treatyincluding all major spacefaring nationsand another 23 are signatories.[1][5][6]

The Outer Space Treaty was spurred by the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in the 1950s, which could reach targets through outer space.[7] The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, in October 1957, followed by a subsequent arms race with the United States, hastened proposals to prohibit the use of outer space for military purposes. On 17 October 1963, the U.N. General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution prohibiting the introduction of weapons of mass destruction in outer space. Various proposals for an arms control treaty governing outer space were debated during a General Assembly session in December 1966, culminating in the drafting and adoption of the Outer Space Treaty the following January.[8]

Key provisions of the Outer Space Treaty include prohibiting nuclear weapons in space; limiting the use of the Moon and all other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes; establishing that space shall be freely explored and used by all nations; and precluding any country from claiming sovereignty over outer space or any celestial body. Although it forbids establishing military bases, testing weapons and conducting military maneuvers on celestial bodies, the treaty does not expressly ban all military activities in space, nor the establishment of military space forces or the placement of conventional weapons in space.[9][10] From 1968 to 1984, the OST birthed four additional agreements: rules for activities on the Moon; liability for damages caused by spacecraft; the safe return of fallen astronauts; and the registration of space vehicles.[11]

OST provided many practical uses and was the most important link in the chain of international legal arrangements for space from the late 1950s to the mid-1980s. OST was at the heart of a 'network' of inter-state treaties and strategic power negotiations to achieve the best available conditions for nuclear weapons world security. The OST also declares that space is an area for free use and exploration by all and "shall be the province of all mankind". Drawing heavily from the Antarctic Treaty of 1961, the Outer Space Treaty likewise focuses on regulating certain activities and preventing unrestricted competition that could lead to conflict.[12] Consequently, it is largely silent or ambiguous on newly developed space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining.[13][14][15] Nevertheless, the Outer Space Treaty is the first and most foundational legal instrument of space law,[16] and its broader principles of promoting the civil and peaceful use of space continue to underpin multilateral initiatives in space, such as the International Space Station and the Artemis Program.[17][18]

The Outer Space Treaty represents the basic legal framework of international space law. According to the U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), the core principles of the treaty are:[19]

Among its principles, it bars states party to the treaty from placing weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or otherwise stationing them in outer space. It specifically limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes, and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (Article IV). However, the treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit, and thus some highly destructive attack tactics, such as kinetic bombardment, are still potentially allowable.[20] In addition, the treaty explicitly allows the use of military personnel and resources to support peaceful uses of space, mirroring a common practice permitted by the Antarctic Treaty regarding that continent. The treaty also states that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and that space shall be free for exploration and use by all the states.

Article II of the treaty explicitly forbids any government from claiming a celestial body such as the Moon or a planet as its own territory, whether by declaration, occupation, or "any other means".[21] However, the state that launches a space object, such as a satellite or space station, retains jurisdiction and control over that object;[22] by extension, a state is also liable for damages caused by its space object.[23]

Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty deals with international responsibility, stating that "the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty" and that States Party shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities.

As a result of discussions arising from Project West Ford in 1963, a consultation clause was included in Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty: "A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment."[24][25]

Being primarily an arms control treaty for the peaceful use of outer space, the Outer Space Treaty offers limited and ambiguous regulations to newer space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining.[13][15][26] It is therefore debated whether the extraction of resources falls within the prohibitive language of appropriation, or whether the use of such resources encompasses the commercial use and exploitation.[27]

Seeking clearer guidelines, private U.S. companies lobbied the U.S. government, which in 2015 introduced the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015 legalizing space mining.[28] Similar national legislation to legalize the appropriation of extraterrestrial resources are now being introduced by other countries, including Luxembourg, Japan, China, India, and Russia.[13][26][29][30] This has created some controversy regarding legal claims over the mining of celestial bodies for profit.[26][27]

The "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", also known as the "Bogota Declaration", was one of the few attempts to challenge the Outer Space Treaty. It was promulgated in 1976 by eight equatorial countries to assert sovereignty over those portions of the geostationary orbit that continuously lie over the signatory nations' territory.[31] These claims did not receive wider international support or recognition, and were subsequently abandoned.[32]

As the first international legal instrument concerning space, the Outer Space Treaty is considered the "cornerstone" of space law.[33][34] It was also the first major achievement of the United Nations in this area of law, following the adoption of the first U.N. General Assembly resolution on space in 1958,[35] and the first meeting of the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) the subsequent year.[36]

Within roughly a decade of the treaty's entry into force, several other treaties were brokered by the U.N. to further develop the legal framework for activities in space:[37]

With the exception of the Moon Treaty, to which only 18 nations are party, all other treaties on space law have been ratified by most major space-faring nations (namely those capable of orbital spaceflight).[38] COPUOS coordinates these treaties and other questions of space jurisdiction, aided by the U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs.

The Bogota Declaration tried to complement shortcomings of the treaty on safeguarding control of Earth's geostationary orbit, but was not implemented.[39]

The Outer Space Treaty was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967. As of February 2022, 112 countries are parties to the treaty, while another 23 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification.[1]

Multiple dates indicate the different days in which states submitted their signature or deposition, which varied by location: (L) for London, (M) for Moscow, and (W) for Washington, D.C. Also indicated is whether the state became a party by way of signature and subsequent ratification, by accession to the treaty after it had closed for signature, or by succession of states after separation from some other party to the treaty.

The Republic of China (Taiwan), which is currently recognized by 13UN member states, ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971. When the PRC subsequently ratified the treaty, they described the Republic of China's (ROC) ratification as "illegal". The ROC has committed itself to continue to adhere to the requirements of the treaty, and the United States has declared that it still considers the ROC to be "bound by its obligations".[5]

Twenty-three states have signed but not ratified the treaty.

The remaining UN member states and UN observer state which have neither ratified nor signed the Outer Space Treaty are:

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Outer Space Treaty - Wikipedia

Taraji P. Henson On The Importance Of Space Exploration And Her NASA Experience With Artemis I  Forbes

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Taraji P. Henson On The Importance Of Space Exploration And Her NASA Experience With Artemis I - Forbes

What countries are involved in space exploration? And how much money of the United States Budget, and the top 5 other countries' budgets are being used for space exploration?

Space agencies involved in human space flight are located in the US (NASA), Russia, The European Union (ESA), China, Canada, Japan and India. The US, Russia and China are the only countries to have independently put people in space. India and Japan state that they have the intention of doing this in the coming decades. European and Canadian astronauts fly with NASA, and the Russian Space Agency and are involved in the International Space Station.

You can see the NASA budget over the last 40 or so years here. In 2005 NASA had a budget of $16.2 billion; this includes not only the human spaceflight division, but also other engineering projects, and science funded by NASA. The total federal spending budget in 2005 was on the order of $2 trillion ($2000 billion), making the NASA share 0.8% of the budget. By comparison roughly 19% of the budget was spent on the Military, 21% on Social Security and 8% went to paying interest on the national debt.

The ESA budget for 2005 was 2.98 billion euros (about 3.5 billion dollars), but many European countries also have their own space agencies which are independently funded, so it's not strictly a fair comparison.

ESA and NASA are by far the highest funded agencies. The Russian space agency has an annual budget of $800-900 million dollars (and it's about the same for India), Japan ~1.8 billion, China ~1.2 billion.

To be fair though, we need to compare these numbers to something which tells you about the wealth of the nation - for example the Gross Domestic Product. The CIA world factbook is a great resource for information like that.

It's also interesting to work out how much is spent per person:

Considering the total budget for the world for space (~25 billion dollars), the total amount spent per person is $3.90 (working on 6.4 billion people), and the percentage of the GDP of the world which is spent on space is roughly 0.05%.

Update by Ann: We've revisited this page in June 2015, so we have some updates to share. Because of the way budgets work, we'll go back in time a little bit and look at the year 2014: that year, NASA had a total budget of about $17.6 billion. As Karen noted above, that doesn't just include human exploration but absolutely everything that NASA does. Overall for 2014, that was 0.5% of the total federal budget, so NASA's overall share of the United States budget has decreased a bit.

As for the other countries listed above, in 2014 the European Space Agency had a budget of about 4.3 billion euros, or $5.51 billion (in US dollars); the Russian Federal Space Agency had a budget of about $5.6 billion; Japan's space agency JAXA was funded at $2.03 billion; China National Space Administration (CNSA) spent about $1.3 billion; and the Indian Space Research Organisation had a budget of about $1.1 billion.

Again, as Karen noted above, there are other contributions to space-related spending in each of these situations, and not all of an agency's spending is focused on space exploration. For instance, private space flight research and development has become a major player in the United States, but that spending isn't captured by the statistics on federal spending via NASA.

Also since Karen's answer, the spaceflight programs of both India and China have really taken off (pun intended!). By 2008, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) had sent a non-crewed probe to the moon, known as Chandrayaan-1. In 2013, ISRO launched an orbital mission to Mars, with successful Mars orbit achieved in 2014. This was pulled off with a very small budget of just about $72 million, for the satellite itself and all of the ground tracking and communication infrastructure needed here on Earth. For its part, China has built and launched the Tiangong-1 space station, several crewed and uncrewed Shenzhou missions, and the Chang'e 3 lunar lander and rover.

Page last updated on June 22, 2015, by Ann Martin

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How much money is spent on space exploration? (Intermediate)

Though space can be a fun and exciting place to explore in science fiction, the real-life danger and expense merits serious consideration. Humans evolved in the relatively safe comforts of Earth, where air is abundant and radiation almost nonexistent - just the opposite of space. Getting to space is dangerous, as you need a ride on a giant rocket just to get there. And the expense of space exploration means only the richest countries can afford it, and even then only rarely.

One of the biggest criticisms against space exploration is the cost. According to the University of Florida, it costs around $500 million to launch a space shuttle. These expenses will only go up when considering longer-term space travel, such as manned explorations to Mars or Jupiter's moons. While new technology may certainly limit the inefficient costs involved in space exploration, many argue that it is still money that could be better spent on more pressing issues.

There is always the problem of unforeseen risk with space exploration. The space shuttle Challenger exploded during launch in 1986, killing seven astronauts, and the shuttle Colombia exploded during reentry in 2003, also killing seven. Radiation from the sun is a constant danger to astronauts, and there may be unforeseen risks when they are traveling far beyond the earth, exacerbated by the fact that there would be little hope of getting back home in time for help.

Tied in with the question of cost and risk of human life is the question of justification. Space exploration appeals to the human desire to learn about the universe; however, it does not have any straightforward, pragmatic application. While there may be some practical use in the distant future, such as possibly colonizing other planets, it is difficult to justify continued space exploration to people who are worried about immediate concerns, such as crime or the economy.

Unmanned space probes are often considered the best choice for space exploration, because they do not put human lives at risk and are relatively cheaper to launch since they do not need space for human comfort or necessities. However, there are also downsides to unmanned probes, including the fact that they cannot adapt to unforeseen circumstances. A good example of this is the Mars Climate Orbiter, which received incorrect coordinates for landing and burned upon entry before it could send any data about Mars. Over $120 million was wasted on this probe.

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Bad Things About Space Exploration | Sciencing

1. The Next Era of Human Space Exploration Just Thundered to Life  Gizmodo
2. NASA's Artemis Launch Just Kicked Off a New Age in Space Exploration  Singularity Hub
3. MSU Billings professor says Artemis 1 launch a new era in space exploration  Q2 News
4. What the Artemis mission could mean for the future of space exploration  WUNC
5. NASA's Artemis 1 mission to Moon sets stage for routine space exploration. Here's what to expect and why it's important  Study Finds
6. View Full Coverage on Google News

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The Next Era of Human Space Exploration Just Thundered to Life - Gizmodo

- RR Auction's Fall Space and Aviation sale closes on October 20th! This high-flying auction features over 800 items, ranging from the dawn of aviation to the commercial spaceflight of today. A large quantity of flown items are featured in the sale, including a pair of pages from Buzz Aldrins Apollo 11 flight plan timeline, the electronic module worn inside Gene Cernans Snoopy Cap during Apollo 17, a Space Shuttle General Purpose Computer that flew on a combined twenty STS missions between 1981 and 1991, and an extremely rare 1-dollar bill recovered from Gus Grissoms Liberty Bell 7 spacecraft. Our bidders can expect a terrific assemblage of astronaut and cosmonaut autographs, hard-to-find vintage space models, early NASA hardware and literature, and, the meilleur du meilleur, Wally Schirras 18k solid yellow gold Omega Speedmaster Professional watch, a one-of-a-kind timepiece presented exclusively to NASAs earliest astronauts. RR Auction is a globally recognized and trusted auction house specializing in historical autographs and artifacts, and is known as a space market leader.

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Space Exploration | All Auction Items | 646 | RR Auction