Category Archives: Mars Colony

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Picture this: Youre standing over the blue bin, trying to figure out if this plastic cup can be recycled. Theres a small label on it with arrows and a number, but you cant remember what this particular one means. Its frustrating.

Not long ago, Sean Winn found himself in a situation like this. He wanted to know what plastic could be recycled and what couldnt, so he started researching. And he was amazed by how broken the system is.

A lot of the consumer packaged goods are sort of defective from a recycling standpoint, he said. They're not really designed to then flow through the materials stream.

Because of cost and other issues, only a small fraction of the plastic we use and even throw in our recycling bins actually ends up being recycled. According to a Greenpeace report, just 5% of the plastic waste generated in the U.S. in 2021 was transformed into new items. The rest ends up in landfills or winds up polluting our environment.

One solution is to use less plastic. Last year, Winn started a nonprofit called the Plastic Reduction Project. The goal is to get people in Austin to rely less on single-use plastic the plastic containers, forks, cups and bags we use once and then toss out.

At first, the Plastic Reduction Project started a website sharing information about what individuals can do to make a difference, like how to make better decisions at the grocery store.

But our thinking started changing pretty rapidly that its actually a little bit unfair to put all that burden on the consumer, Winn said.

Winn and the Plastic Reduction Project felt they needed to move their efforts up the ladder. They landed on restaurants.

If the diner never gets handed a plastic fork, then thats good for everybody, not just the green tree huggers, Winn said. Everybody gets a proper fork and a proper plate and, therefore, youre moving the needle much more than just preaching to the choir.

Ditching plastic

Getting big chains like McDonalds to change their ways felt impossible. But Austin has a lot of local restaurants. The ice cream shop around the corner? The bakery up the street? In those places, the group felt it could make a change.

With a local restaurant, I think we can get to a decision-maker much more easily, Winn said. If he or she likes what you have to say, then they can implement it right away, and we can talk to them as a peer.

The Plastic Reduction Project began offering free consultations to restaurants to help them find ways to use fewer plastic products. Winn said the group takes a dollars-and-cents approach, showing restaurants how replacing disposable dishes and utensils with reusable ones can save them money.

We feel like thats speaking the entrepreneurs language, and, quite frankly, just taking culture wars off the table, he said. We dont know what the political persuasions are of the manager or the owner. And fortunately if the financial case is compelling, it just shouldnt matter.

The consultations show local restaurants how to access the City of Austins zero waste rebate programs. Businesses can apply for funds to support their waste-reduction efforts. For example, the city offers up to $1,800 to businesses that ditch single-use plastic and switch to reusable and compostable items.

Some businesses operate on a to-go model, so using things like ceramic dishes and silverware isnt an option. Thats the case for Caseys New Orleans Snowballs.

The locally owned shaved ice shop, which has been at the corner of 51st and Airport for nearly three decades, sells up to 65,000 snowballs a year. Caseys co-owner Mars Chapman had a consultation with the Plastic Reduction Project a few months ago.

The group showed Chapman ways to make his business more sustainable, like giving out straws only when customers ask for them and taking the plastic bags they use to transport ice to proper recycling centers when theyre done with them.

Before the consultation, Caseys was already using compostable products. The business stopped using Styrofoam in 2014.

I became tired of the fact that we were sending thousands and thousands, tens of thousands, of cups to the landfill that are just going to be around for forever, Chapman said. That's not the legacy that I want to leave.

He said switching to compostables was more expensive for the business. But it was important to him, so he found ways to make up for the cost elsewhere, like raising prices and adding more service windows so the business could sell more product.

But using compostable cups isnt a cure-all. Caseys uses Greenware Cups to hold its icy treats. Theyre made of PLA, or polylactic acid, a compostable material derived from plants. They look like clear, plastic cups. Someone ordering a snowball might think the cup is recyclable and toss it in the blue bin, which then contaminates the recycling stream.

Only some cup sizes Caseys offers tell customers in plain letters that the cup is compostable. Others just have symbols on the bottom, like PLA and the No. 7. This signals theyre compostable, not recyclable, but not everyone may know that.

The Plastic Reduction Project recommended Caseys put signs up to inform customers the cups and serviceware are compostable. Chapman says hes working on getting signs posted.

But ensuring the cups and spoons actually end up being composted will still be a challenge. For one thing, there arent compost bins at Caseys. Chapman said Caseys used to contract with a compost hauler in the past, but customers would often throw other non-compostable items in the bins, which caused problems for the business.

No amount of signage resulted in us not having to dig through every single trash bag to pull out things, he said. Otherwise, for each item we were being hit with a $50 fine, and we're already having to pay a premium to work with a private compost hauler.

These cups break down only in industrial facilities, like the City of Austin uses. A backyard compost pile wont get hot enough to do it. So, for these cups to actually end up being composted, a customer would need to take them home and toss them in their city-issued curbside compost bin, if they have one. The rest will end up in the landfill, where its not totally clear what happens to them.

Still, Chapman said he prefers using these compostable products because hes supporting companies that dont use plastic.

By buying it, were increasing demand for it, he said. And demonstrating demand for alternative solutions or products eventually helps bring down the overall price for those products. So to me, its very much worthwhile to buy it, even if its just getting thrown away, because hopefully its going to be easier for then other people to make the jump to buy compostable products as opposed to traditional.

Vote with your wallet

That feeling of wanting to do better and putting your money where your mouth is is something a lot of people can relate to. Thats where the other half of the Plastic Reduction Projects efforts come in. They encourage Austinites to use a smartphone app called PlasticScore.

Users rate restaurants based on their sustainability practices. You select a restaurant and then answer a series of questions about your experience, like: Did your food come on a reusable plate or not? Were you handed a paper to-go bag or a plastic one? It then gives the restaurant a rating that other app users can see and make their dining-out choices based on.

The app helps people find more sustainable restaurants where they can sort of vote with their pocketbook to give business to the folks that are trying to do better in this space, Winn said.

The Plastic Reduction Project has been around for only about a year, but it has gotten more than 700 reviews up on the app. People can join by following these steps.

The reviews can be useful for consumers, but the data collected could also be helpful for policymakers. Winn said the Plastic Reduction Project is sharing the data with the City of Austin to help it understand what products restaurants are using, like what percentage are relying on Styrofoam versus compostables. He hopes all of this will help lead to real changes in the city.

Our little ant colony is kind of the way I look at it. You've got all these people running around doing a very small amount of volunteering, but it all adds up and it compiles into this database, he said. Hopefully then that finds its way into policy.

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This nonprofit wants to reduce plastic waste one Austin business at ... - KUT

To the countryside or into outer space? 1970s utopias about escaping the city  Domus IT

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To the countryside or into outer space? 1970s utopias about escaping the city - Domus IT

The fabrics are designed and made in the Tiverton factory

A company in Devon is developing a new fabric to be used on a parachute to land on Mars.

Heathcoat Fabrics in Tiverton are working with NASA again, after successfully creating the parachute material that took a rover to the red planet in 2021.

The latest fabric needs to be twice as strong as that one, due to the size of vehicle it is delivering.

On Tuesday they were visited by representatives of NASA.

Katie Siegel, Systems Engineer at NASA said: "Our plan is to build an even bigger lander that will go to Mars and hopefully be able to package up samples and bring them back, and to land that we need a bigger parachute that can take on much more load."

LISTEN: Heathcote Fabrics talk to BBC Radio Devon

Peter Hill, director of Woven Fabrics, explained the reason the firm are the "market leaders in this field".

"We have been making parachute fabrics since the 1930s, about 90 years, and on top of that we have got innovative new machinery, we can make wider fabric than anyone else which is necessary for the bigger parachutes," he said.

The material has to be twice as strong as the previous parachute the firm made for NASA

"We have high-tech products that are much stronger than any other fabrics on the market, They have got higher heat resistance which is necessary because the fabrics need to be treated at that high temperature before they go into space.

"Other fabrics - made in the US for example - have failed those tests. We have got a team of textile engineers who work on these products and can design bespoke products that nobody else can do."

The fabrics are designed and made in their Tiverton factory.

Follow BBC News South West on Twitter, Facebook and Instagram. Send your story ideas to spotlight@bbc.co.uk.

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Tiverton firm making more parachute fabric for Mars

This story is part of Welcome to Mars, our series exploring the red planet.

It's always a delight when a NASA rover finds something that doesn't fit in on the Martian surface. Sometimes, it's landing debris. Sometimes it's a rock that wandered over from somewhere else. Sometimes it's a meteorite from space. The Curiosity rover team is puzzling over a funky little gray rock that stands out from its surroundings. It might be a meteorite.

"This is an unusual gray float rock which may be a remnant of material higher up Mount Sharp or may be a meteorite. We have analyzed a few meteorites over the past 10 years, but they are not so abundant that we fail to get excited at the thought of a new one,"planetary geologist Catherine O'Connell-Cooper wrote in a rover update this week.

This Curiosity photo from October 2022 shows the thin, dark layer of the Marker Band running from left to right (though it's thinner on the left).

A"float" rock is one that's come from somewhere else. The rock in Curiosity's image resembles previous meteorites found on Mars that have a dark, shiny look to them.

Mars has a long history of being bombarded by rocks from space. NASA's dearly departed InSight lander even picked up the sounds of meteoroid impacts during its mission.

Curiosity is exploring the Gale Crater, working its way up the slopes of the crater's massive central mountain, Mount Sharp. One area of interest here is a geologic formation called the Marker Band, which O'Connell-Copper previously described as "a thin dark band whose origin is unclear." The mystery rock is located below the Marker Band.

Meteorites on Mars are worth studying. In 2016,NASA investigated a meteorite named "Egg Rock" found by Curiosity. Egg Rock was an iron meteorite that may have originally been part of the core of an asteroid. Scientists are interested inhow exposure to the Martian environment affects iron meteorites and how that compares with what meteorites experience on Earth.

Curiosity has been on Mars for over 10 years, but its sightseeing never gets old. The mystery rock is just the latest little piece of visual intrigue from a fascinating planet.

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Goofy Mars Rock Spotted by NASA Rover Might Be a Meteorite

NASA's Perseverance rover just caught another glimpse of its pioneering robotic cousin.

The car-sized Perseverance snapped a photo recently of the Ingenuity helicopter as the 4-pound (1.8 kilograms) rotorcraft sat atop a Red Planet sand dune.

"The #MarsHelicopter and I are closer together than we've been in a while, and guess who I spotted resting on a dune between flights. Can you believe Ingenuity is gearing up for Flight #39?" the Perseverance team said via Twitter (opens in new tab) on Wednesday (Jan. 11), in a post that featured a photo of the little chopper.

Related: Soar over Mars rover tracks with Ingenuity helicopter (video)

Ingenuity and Perseverance landed together inside Mars' Jezero Crater in February 2021. The 28-mile-wide (45 kilometers) Jezero hosted a big lake and a river delta long ago, and Perseverance is scouring the area for signs of ancient life on Mars.

The six-wheeled robot is also collecting and caching dozens of samples for future return to Earth. For the past few weeks, Perseverance has been caching some of its sample tubes in a "depot" in a patch of Jezero's floor that the mission team calls Three Forks.

Perseverance has so far deposited six of a planned 10 sample tubes (opens in new tab) in the Three Forks depot, which serves as a backup in case the rover isn't healthy enough to haul material to a future NASA lander later this decade. A rocket aboard that lander will launch the samples to Mars orbit, where they'll be picked up by a European spacecraft and hauled back to Earth. The samples could land here as early as 2033.

The depot samples are doubles; Perseverance is keeping a set of material drilled from the same target rocks on its body. If need be, two Ingenuity-like helicopters that will launch with the future lander will fly over to Three Forks and grab the sample tubes there one by one.

Ingenuity is currently serving as a scout for Perseverance, helping the rover team pick the best routes through the rough Jezero landscape and identify promising outcrops for in-depth study.

This work is part of the chopper's extended mission. Not long after landing, Ingenuity aced its primary five-flight campaign, showing that powered flight is possible in the thin Martian atmosphere.

Ingenuity conducted its 39th Martian flight on Wednesday, covering 459 feet (140 meters) of ground over the course of nearly 79 seconds. To date, the chopper has flown a total of 25,690 feet (7,830 m) on Mars and stayed airborne for more than 64 minutes, according to the mission's flight log (opens in new tab).

Perseverance has captured footage of Ingenuity before. The rover snapped photos of the chopper just after it deployed onto Jezero's floor, for example, and also recorded video of Ingenuity's 13th flight, which took place in September 2021.

Mike Wall is the author of "Out There (opens in new tab)" (Grand Central Publishing, 2018; illustrated by Karl Tate), a book about the search for alien life. Follow him on Twitter @michaeldwall (opens in new tab). Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom (opens in new tab) and on Facebook (opens in new tab).

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Mars rover Perseverance spots Ingenuity helicopter resting on sand dune ...

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Nostradamus' New Year 2023 Predictions: From Cannibalism On Earth And World War 3; Heres Some Shocking Claims Made By The French Astrologer  SpotboyE

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Nostradamus' New Year 2023 Predictions: From Cannibalism On Earth And World War 3; Heres Some Shocking Claims Made By The French Astrologer - SpotboyE

Next to an old nuclear bomber hangar in western Poland, a mission to the surfaces of both the moon and Mars is about to begin.

The two-week mission is just a simulation, of course, since no entity on Earth is prepared to inhabit deep space. But the experiment called the Poland Mars Analogue Simulation 2017 will study a group of six volunteer "analogue" astronauts as they work through a realistic schedule of space exploration, then provide those findings to anyone who's drawing up crewed missions beyond Earth.

"This mission will be one of the most comprehensive Mars analogue missions ever conducted in Europe," Mina Takla, spokesperson for the PMAS 2017 mission, told Business Insider in an email.

The experiment, which Business Insider first learned about through the Dawn of Private Space Science Symposium on June 4, is being spearheaded by the Space Exploration Project Group, or SEPG. (The group is part of the Space Generation Advisory Council and works with the United Nations on its space exploration research and support efforts.)

Many other partners are involved in the mission, too, including The Mars Society, European Space Agency, and European Space Foundation.

The project's central feature is a U-shaped habitat that's "connected to a nuclear fighter [plane] hangar near Pila, Poland," Takla said.

To make the mission possible, PMAS 2017 rounded up money from corporate sponsors, and also raised tens of thousands of dollars through crowdfunding sites. To create the habitat, the Space Garden Company a partner to the project secured material donations and also did some fundraising.

Organizers have dubbed their faux habitat project the Martian Modular Analog Research Station, or M.A.R.S.

As Marta Bellon of Business Insider Poland reported in May 2016, a previous design for the base, created by British architect Scott Porter, called for four arms and a domed headquarters built by Freedomes (the same company that built the fictional Mars habitats for the blockbuster movie "The Martian").

However, organizers have since dropped the four-armed design for a U-shaped one. The habitat's planned location in southern Poland also moved to western Poland in the past year.

The new, U-shaped M.A.R.S. facility will have six units, each with its own dedicated purpose, such as "scientific research, crew quarters (including a gym), habitation, hygienic facilities, kitchen area, and storage and systems," Takla said. "The entry and exit to the habitat will be via an airlock."

Takla did not provide Business Insider with any sketches or photos of the facility in time for publication, nor could he confirm if and when its construction was completed.

Assuming M.A.R.S. is finished in time, six analogue astronauts will "land" in the habitat on July 31, then work and live and work inside it through August 13.

The volunteers hail from Puerto Rico, Israel, Spain, France, India, the US, Nigeria, and other locations. Meanwhile, a larger support team will operate as mission control in the northern Polish city of Torun, including psychologists to monitor the astronauts.

"[PMAS 2017] will be one of the most international, multicultural, and interdisciplinary analogue missions ever conducted, with members from over 28 different countries and representing scientific disciplines ranging from engineering to astrophysics, psychology, geology, and biology," Takla said.

In addition to following a strict schedule of experiments, maintenance, and personal time, mission managers will simulate other realities for a far-off planetary mission, including spacesuits to leave M.A.R.S., and annoying communications delays.

"[T]he first three days of the 14 days of the simulation will be in 'Lunar mode' with a real-time communication between habitat and Mission Control, before we go for the remaining 11 days into the Martian mode," Tajana Lui, co-leader of SEPG, told Business Insider in an email.

When the Martian mode starts, Lui said, "the time delay will be 15 minutes, and simulates the long distance between Earth and Mars and the related communication delay."

The PMAS 2017 mission isn't the only project trying to figure out how to run a tightly operated lunar or Martian base.

HI-SEAS in Hawaii, for example which former Business Insider reporter Kelly Dickerson visited has astronauts who live and work inside a habitat built on the side of a barren volcano.

Russia, China, and the ESA have also run six willing "astronauts" through a psychological gauntlet with its $15 million Mars500 experiment.

That project, which ended a few years ago, had the astronauts stay inside for 520 days, or nearly a year and a half, to see what challenges they faced and how to prevent or solve them when real Mars colonization missions actually begin. (Boredom, concluded an exhaustive study of the project, is one of the greatest hurdles to overcome.)

Such information could prove extremely valuable to the first nation (or private company, like SpaceX) to land people on Mars. Whoever is spending tens of billions of dollars to get the job done, they'll not only want a crew to survive to tell the tale, but also make the best use of their time some 140 million miles from Earth.

Correction (July 10, 2017): Business Insider was initially given and directed to outdated information about M.A.R.S. We have since corrected and updated this story to reflect the project's current details.

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Mars Base Simulation in Poland to Lock People in a Habitat ... - Insider

On September 29, 2017, SpaceX CEO Elon Musk took the stage at the 68th International Astronautical Congress in Adelaide, Australia. Musk spoke about his company's plans for interplanetary travel and his belief in humanity's future as a multi-planet species.

His proposed first stop: Marssooner and cheaper than might be expected. In front of the assembled international audience of space enthusiasts and industry leaders, Musk boldly announced that SpaceX would reach the red planet by 2022.

Concept art for a SpaceX spacecraft on Mars.

This was not the first time the technology entrepreneur had made such bold pronouncements in front of the IAC crowd.

A year earlier, at the 67th IAC meeting in Guadalajara, Mexico, Musk had revealed that he had built his vast business empire primarily in order to make colonization of other planets possible, and presented a compelling plan for how to get to Mars. His glimmering visions of a terraformed planet, clean, orderly Martian settlements, and low estimated ticket price stoked his audiences breathless desire to venture into the cosmos.

However, in addressing questions from the audience, Musk evaded practical questions such as who ought to make the dangerous first trips and how he expected to handle the problem of human waste. His focus on innovation reflects a current surge in enthusiasm for triumphant technological solutions to local- and global-scale problems and a longstanding disdain for the mundane and messy.

Elon Musk unveiled the Dragon V2, a spacecraft designed to carry people into Earths orbit and developed through a SpaceX and NASA partnership, in 2014 (left). Concept art for the Mars Excursion Module in a 1964 NASA proposal (right).

Nearly half a century has passed since human feet last touched the surface of another celestial body. In the time since astronaut Eugene Cernans final steps on the Moon, weve sent uncrewed spacecraft near and farto planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and dwarf planets, even to the very edges of the solar system. Human explorers, however, havent ventured beyond low-Earth orbit since 1972.

That hasnt stopped dreamers and the practical-minded alike from contemplating what our next steps into the mythical final frontier should be.

As our closest neighbor and host to a bevy of robotic spacecraft that have gone before, Mars is a popular destination among those who yearn to make new footprints on an untrammeled world. Even before the Moon became the established finish line of the Cold War Space Race, leaders of the American and Soviet space programs envisioned Mars as humankinds first stop in exploring the cosmos.

Astronaut Eugene A. Cernan on the moon in 1972 (left).Mars in 2003, when it was only 34,647,420 miles from Earththe closest the two planets have been in 60,000 years(right). A panoramic image of the Mars Pathfinder mission taken from its landing site in 1997 (bottom).

U.S. federal plans for planetary exploration have waxed and waned since the days of NASAs Project Apollo, during which American men traveled to the moon and back nine times from 1963-1972. Following legislative wrangling over the proposed Asteroid Return Mission during the Obama administration, Donald Trump resuscitated George W. Bushs promise to return to the Moon and move on to Marsand like his predecessor, he did not offer concrete plans for doing so.

However, with the rise of a thriving private space industry, presidents and legislators no longer hold exclusive authority over extraterrestrial planning. Tech billionaires, aging Apollo astronauts, and nonprofit space enthusiast foundations have lately emerged as practical power players.

The 2015 mission logo for the OSIRIS-REx mission (left). Concept art for the OSIRIS-REx Capsule returning to Earth (right).

Musk and Blue Origin CEO Jeff Bezos have both declared Mars a target for their burgeoning aerospace businesses. In 2015, the nonprofit Interplanetary Society successfully launched a citizen-funded propulsion system that uses solar energy as a kind of cosmic sail. Enthusiast organizations from the Mars Society to Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrins ShareSpace Foundation all promise that with a little imaginationand moneyhumans will reach Mars within the next few decades.

While the thrill of exploration yielded flags and footprints on the Moon, it takes more than a few small steps to turn a frontier into a colony. If humanity is to become a truly multi-planet species, we must develop both the will and the means to go and to stay put.

Getting there is only the first challenge. Figuring out what to do once humans arrive is much harder.

Jeff Bezos (third from left), the Founder of Blue Origin, and Lori Garver (forth from left), NASA Deputy Administrator, in front of a composite pressure vehicle at the Blue Origin headquarters in 2011 (left). Elon Musk speaking at a Mars Society Conference in 2006 about the Falcon 9 launch vehicle and Dragon manned spacecraft (top). Apollo 11 Astronaut Buzz Aldrin in 2016 at a preview of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex exhibit on Mars (bottom).

Mars as Empire and Utopia

The yearning to homestead other worlds isnt anything new. The same desires that motivated European imperial pursuits and Anglo-American westward expansion in centuries past underpin many 20th-century arguments for extraterrestrial empire on the final frontier. Innumerable novels and movies feed a mainstream audience hungry for imaginary scenarios in which humans travel to other planets, and wonder what we might do once we get there.

In books and films, tales of tragic conquest are as common as fantasies of brighter futures in which humanity corrects the wrongs committed on Earth. Writers including Ray Bradbury and Sun Ra have even imagined radical futures of racial justice through the establishment of extraterrestrial black communities. Space is the place where the righteous of humanity may build new utopias and leave behind a ruined Earth.

Ray BradburysThe Martian Chronicles (1950)is collection of science fiction short stories about the colonization of Mars by humans fleeing an environmentally devastated Earth and coming into conflict with aboriginal Martians (left). The film poster for Sun Ra'sAfrofuturist science fiction film,Space Is The Place (1974), (right).

During the late 19th century, astronomer Percival Lowell studied Mars from his observatory near Flagstaff, Arizona. He concluded that intelligent creatures had constructed canals to carry water across the surface of Mars, an idea that remained popular until 1965 when the first photographs from the Mariner 4 probe revealed a waterless, lifeless planet.

In subsequent decades, robotic orbiters, landers, and rovers have mapped the surface of the planet, conducted remote experiments, and even taken famous, red-tinged selfies. A fleet of spacecraft have successfully made the journey, from the twin Viking landers of 1976 to the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter that reached Martian orbit in October 2016.

Each spacecraft has been designed to protect the planet from being seeded with Earth microorganisms. Data from these missions have led scientists to determine that, while no life appears to exist on Mars, abundant water does.

Astronomer Percival Lowell at his Flagstaff, AZ observatory in 1914 (left). A photograph of craters on Mars taken by Mariner 4 in 1965 (right). The first clear image transmitted from the surface of Mars by Viking 1 in 1976 (bottom).

Perhaps this very lifelessness has made Mars that much more appealing to would-be colonizers. With no living creatures to be subjugated, moral questions about taking over an entire world seem less fraught than if living, breathing Martians existed.

Indeed, ecologists and environmentalists of the 1960s and 1970s enthusiastically studied extraterrestrial colonization largely because of this apparent lack of moral ambiguity.

During this time, as astronauts prepared to take the first steps on the Moon and environmental movements gained steam around the world, scientists like Edward Wilson and Eugene and Howard Odum considered whether more orderly worlds might be created on other planets. NASA even funded studies by ecologists to determine how to build self-sustaining life boats in orbit as a stepping stone to extraterrestrial colonization.

Leaders in current space culture express their desire for permanent colonization of other planets either to escape a dying earth or as a means to improve life on earth.

Concept art for a Mars settlement with a cutaway view of an underground habitat area for growing food (left). A fictional Mars tourism poster commissioned by SpaceX in 2015 (right).

Some, like Musk, see colonies on Mars as the only way to ensure the survival of life as we know it. Their worry is growing as the physical evidence of climate change continues to mount and American political will fails to rise to the challenge.

NASA Administrator Charles Bolden has also advocated interplanetary colonization but with a more distant doom in mindnoting that our Sun will eventually transform into a red giant star whose radius will consume Earth, Bolden argued that homo sapiens must become a multi-planet species to ensure its long-term survival.

Others, like Jeff Bezos, sees otherworldly colonies as sources for energy and raw materials to bolster Earth civilizationsa colonial vision in lockstep with imperial programs throughout history.

Buzz Aldrin sees permanent colonization as the only way to make scientific research on other planets affordable and sustainablea perspective he likely gained after his 2.5 hours traversing the lunar surface in 1969.

NASA Administrator Charles Bolden speaking to students in 2016 (left). Astronaut Buzz Aldrin during a lunar landing mission in 1969 (middle). Bolden congratulating SpaceX CEO Elon Musk after the first successful mission by a private company to carry supplies to the International Space Station in 2012 (right).

Planetary Analogs from Moon to Mars

As Aldrin knows, even getting off the planet requires immense investment of resources, capital, technology, and intellect. And expenditures by the federal government to support space travel seemed more plausible during the Cold War era than they do today.

Surviving for long periods on another world has yet to be attempted. It goes without saying that living any place other than the planet to which the human species has been perfectly adapted presents monumental difficulties beyond securing funding.

Cold War-era thinkers began to work out the challenges of extraterrestrial living before making the voyage. Several organizations took on the task of making Earth like Marscreating what are known as planetary analog habitats.

Planetary analogs involve recreating the conditions of another celestial body on Earth. This has historically involved working in an ecosystem resembling the Martian landscape, building habitats that replicate the expected conditions of extraterrestrial living, and determining what parts of Earth might best survive and sustain life on another planet.

Astronauts practicing microgravity techniques in NASAs Neutral Buoyancy Lab at Johnson Space Center (top left). An astronaut and geologist in Arizona testing a lunar rover in 2008 as part of the Desert Research and Technology Studies program (top right). Members of the Mars Research Society practice near the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station in 2001 (bottom left). The Human Exploration Research Analog at the Johnson Space Center in Texas is a modular, three-story habitat designed to simulate the isolation, confinement, and remote conditions of mission exploration scenarios (bottom right).

Planetary analogs provide the opportunity to test out humans adaptability without having to leave the safety of planet Earth. These experimental attempts have ranged from geological training exercises to constructing large-scale Earth habitats. With each planetary analog experiment, the imagined realities of life on another planet shifted in place.

Will future Martians wear space suits and move from tiny habitat to tiny habitat? Will they be expected to tend entire ecosystems? Or will they oversee the wholesale transformation of an entire planet to mimic the familiar Earth?

Some of the first planetary analog experiments were designed to simulate what geologists expected astronauts might find upon landing on the Moon. NASA selected natural sites that resembled what the Moon looked like from afar. Astronauts trained at sites in New Mexico, Nevada, Alaska, Hawaii, and Iceland, each chosen for their strange geological features.

Members of the Apollo-14 team at the Craters of the Moon National Monument in Idaho in 1969.

During the mid-to-late 1960s, popular attractions such as the Grand Canyon, Sunset Crater, and Meteor Craternot far from the Arizona observatory where Percival Lowell once studied Martian canalsprovided geologists with opportunities to teach non-scientist astronauts how to evaluate rock strata in the field.

The aptly named Craters of the Moon National Monument in Idaho served as a useful site for astronauts to practice maneuvering and using new tools. The monument continues to be used as a test bed by planetary scientists.

Run by the Mars Research Society, the Mars Desert Research Station in Utah simulates Mars surface exploration habitats.

Where naturally occurring rocky features would not suit training needs, federal scientists made new ones. In 1967, the joint NASA-U.S. Geological Survey Astrogeology Research Program built a microcosm of the Moon into the rocky terrain of an extinct Arizona volcano by blasting holes in the ground to resemble lunar craters.

Astronauts wore space suits, collected soil samples, and drove a lunar module nicknamed Grover through the artificial moonscape that came to be known as the Cinder Lake crater field. Such analog sites allowed astronauts to practice a few small steps in a place that resembled the Moon before taking the 238,000-mile voyage.

As human planetary exploration waned after Apollo ended in 1972, robotic emissaries required similar sites on Earth to anticipate and practice maneuvering in places like the Martian landscape. Desert ecosystems have long provided useful sandbox trials for rovers.

NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey Astrology Research Program testing equipment in Nevada in 1972.

In addition to testing mechanical systems, Earthly analogs provided useful settings to drum up popular support for Mars missions. To celebrate the Viking landers trips to Mars, landing a few months apart in July and September of 1976, famous science popularizer Carl Sagan posed with a Viking model in Death Valley. The reddish hued sands and alien geological formations suggested what Viking might look like once it reached its destination.

These analogs rendered Mars more familiar to non-planetary scientists. When the Viking landers sent back their images, the landscape looked uncannily familiar, much like the deserts back home.

The Soviet and Russian space programs have notoriously found it difficult to complete successful missions to Mars. Each attempt since 1960 has failed.

Astronomer, cosmologist, and astrophysicist Carl Sagan posing in Death Valley, CA with a model of the Viking lander for his television series, Cosmos.

However, while the United States successfully launched and landed Viking spacecraft on Mars, the Soviet Union developed and tested closed life-support systems intended for future use by cosmonauts on other planets.

The Soviet BIOS program ran from 1965 with the construction of BIOS-1 through the mid-1980s with the operation of the BIOS-3 facility. With each subsequent BIOS structure, Soviet scientists increased the complexity of plant life used to exchange gasses with human occupants. The earliest experiments used algae, and later tests employed specialized growth chambers to cultivate vegetables such as wheat, beets, carrots, cucumbers, and dill.

BIOS-3 was constructed entirely underground in Krasnoyarsk, Russia, and supported its first fully enclosed human crew of two men and one woman in the winter of 1972 to 1973. Missions ranged in length from several months to a year. Researchers claimed that the BIOS project demonstrated that a habitat could successfully use food crops and other plants to uphold the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide necessary to keep human occupants alive in a closed systemthe kind that would be necessary for a mission to Mars.

A mission patch for the Soviet Vostok 3 program in 1962 (left). The first American female astronaut, Sally Ride, aboard the Challenger Space Shuttle in 1983 (right).

Meanwhile, NASA continued to reach for human trips to Mars. Following the Challenger disaster in 1986, NASA recruited a committee chaired by Sally Ride, the first female astronaut, to contemplate ways to revive and refocus the American civilian space program. In addition to bolstering the shuttle program, continuing the space station project, revisiting the Moon, and supporting ongoing robotic exploration of the solar system, the Ride Report called for establishing an outpost on Mars.

Three years later, on the 20th anniversary of the Apollo 11 moon landing, President George H. W. Bush revealed his Space Exploration Initiative, which also promoted a return to the Moon and Mars.

These perennial calls for Mars colonization did not go into detail on the methods and plans for long-term settlement. None moved beyond initial grand announcements. Even our robotic emissaries stayed hometwo decades elapsed between the Viking landings and the 1996 launch of the Mars Pathfinder mission. For 20 years, humankind steered clear of the red planet.

In 1989, President George H. W. Bush announced his Space Exploration Initiative in front of the National Air and Space Museum at the 20th anniversary celebration of the Apollo 11 Moon landing.

The Biosphere 2: An Ecological Dress Rehearsal

As NASA committees and American presidents contemplated grand visions of extraterrestrial travel without much in the way of action, one of the most prominent attempts to simulate a Martian homestead was accomplished by a group pursuing extraterrestrial utopia. Rather than practicing colonization in a place on Earth that resembled Mars, this collective staged a dress rehearsal by crafting a tiny Earth on Earth.

A collection of self-trained ecologists, architects, and artists toiled from 1987 to 1991 to build the enormous, closed-system greenhouse that came to be known as the Biosphere 2Biosphere 1 being planet Earth.

Biosphere 2 in 1998 near Tucson, AZ.

In its early years, the facility operated outside the auspices of NASA, the military, or even an established research institution. Unlike the BIOS researchers, Biosphere 2 did not benefit from state money. In the middle of the Arizona desert, a private patron funded an effort by concerned, eco-minded citizens to test whether Earth in microcosm could survive in a place like Mars.

The designers of Biosphere 2 presented it as many thingsan ecological laboratory, an organic lifeboat, and a prototype for an extraterrestrial analog habitat. Oil heir Edward Bass provided some $150 million to the group of performance artists and self-trained ecologists based at the Synergia Ranch in New Mexico to build and operate the facility.

Publicity materials represented the ambitious project as a test run for recreating small Earthseither on places like Mars or on Earth itself to act as a self-sustaining lifeboat in the event of ecological collapse. The primary goal: to enclose humans inside the small Earth and determine whether such a system could sustain life over long periods of time.

The Savanna (foreground) and Ocean (background) of Biosphere 2 in 2003 (left). The living quarters for the inhabitants of Biosphere 2 (middle). The Coastal Fog Desert section of Biosphere 2 in 2005 (right).

The Biosphere 2 designers traveled far and wide to study and construct the ecosystems included in the greenhouse. Synergia participants even transported coral reef organisms from the Caribbean to the Biosphere 2 oceana remarkable feat given the fragility of such organisms and their inability to thrive in captivity.

By the time the facility was pronounced ready for the first fully closed, self-sustaining mission, some 3,800 different species populated seven biomes, representing the ocean, a rainforest, a wetlands, a savannah, a fog desert, an agricultural area, and a human habitat.

In September 1991, a crew of eight biospherians wearing dark blue flight suits paraded past cheering crowds before walking through the airlock of the facility. With the exception of a medical emergency requiring the brief exit and return of one crew member, they would not emerge for two years.

Much like real astronauts, the biospherians and the project as a whole were subjected to close scrutiny by those on the outsidein some cases quite literally, as visitors were encouraged to observe through the glass as those inside tended their small experimental planet.

The airlock of Biosphere 2 (left). An area for cultivating crops in Biosphere 2 in 1998 (right).

Over the course of the two-year mission, the Biosphere 2 suffered from the same kind of major extinction event that some predict will happen on Earth, thus necessitating Mars colonization. The facility had been deliberately species-stuffed with the expectation that at least some extinctions would occur. After two years, some 40 percent of species died off, ranging from vertebrate species like exotic galagos to corals to ordinary bees.

Shortly after the fanfare of the closure ceremony faded, the bees were found clustered by the emergency exit, dead. The cheaper glass used to build the majority of the greenhouse filtered out the ultraviolet light that bees require to navigate. Blinded by a deficiency invisible to human eyes, the insects made their way to the UV light admitted by the thinner exit glass and expired there.

When bees went extinct, the Biosphere 2 lost key pollinators. Its human attendants had to compensate for the loss with their own labor. While they subsisted on perhaps the most organic diet imaginable, the biospherians suffered from a shortage of calories, insufficient oxygen, and exhaustion.

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