Category Archives: Life Extension

The term life extension program (LEP) means a program to repair/replace components of nuclear weapons to ensure the ability to meet military requirements. By extending the "life," or time that a weapon can safely and reliably remain in the stockpile without having to be replaced or removed, National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) is able to maintain a credible nuclear deterrent without producing new weapons or conducting new underground nuclear tests.

Underlying the LEP planning process, NNSA remains committed to supporting the Presidents nuclear agenda as articulated in the 2010 Nuclear Posture Review. LEP activities will support the goal to reduce both the number of warhead types and the stockpile size by formulating options for interoperable (i.e., common or adaptable) warheads that could be flexibly deployed across different delivery platforms.

Additionally, a well-planned and well-executed stockpile life extension strategy will result in improved safety and security while also enabling the Department of Defense to build a deployment and hedgestrategy consistent with the Administrations agenda to establish a smaller, yet still effective, deterrent.

Each facility in NNSA's nuclear weapons complex contributes to the life extension process. The majority of the physical work on the warhead and bombs is carried out at the NNSA Production Office which contains the Pantex Plant and Y-12 National Security Complex. The Pantex Plant does assembly and disassembly of the warheads and bombs while the Y-12 National Security Complex manufactures, assembles, and disassembles certain key components. The Kansas City Plants main mission is to manufacture and procure key non-nuclear components. The design laboratories Los Alamos, Lawrence Livermore and Sandia National Laboratories - assess the health of the current stockpile, design the components and systems for the life extension program warheads and bombs, and certify the life extended models when they enter the stockpile. The Nevada National Security Site provides facilities and expertise for experiments used to assess the health of the current stockpile systems and to evaluate proposed component designs for life extension programs. The Savannah River Site provides tritium gas, an essential and limited life material used in modern warheads.

NNSA must develop individual life extension programs by using science-based research for each weapon type and develop specific solutions to extend the lifetime of each particular weapon because each is unique. Over time, the components of nuclear warheads deteriorate, even when kept in storage. LEPs will address known aging issues in weapon systems, and each LEP will study the options for increasing the safety, security and reliability of weapons on a case-by-case basis.

Life extension efforts are intended to extend the lifetime of a weapon for an additional 20 to 30 years. The current planning scenario envisions that the useful lifetimes of the W76, B61, W78 and the W88 will have been extended through major LEP efforts by 2031. The Phase 6.X process should be used when life extension activity is planned for a weapon already in the stockpile.

In summary, the current LEP and alteration plans endorsed by the Nuclear Weapons Council include the following:

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Life Extension Programs | National Nuclear Security ...

Numerous scientific studies document that people who eat the most fruits and vegetables have a lower incidence of health problems. Few people, however, consistently eat enough plant food to provide vital phyto-protection against common age-related decline. Commercial multivitamins do not contain all of the vital plant components needed to maintain good health.1-3

Life Extension Mix is vastly superior to other multivitamins on the market todaypartly because it provides a remarkably broad array of fruit and vegetable extracts.

Packed into this blend are extracts of fruits ranging from grape and maqui to bilberry and tart cherry. Its standardized vegetable extracts range from broccoli to artichoke. All with known health benefits throughout the body.

Rounding out the superiority of Life Extension Mix is its extensive list of water- and fat-soluble vitamins, minerals, amino acids. Life Extension Mix provides enzymatically-active forms of B vitamins like pyridoxal-5-phosphate that provide immediate antiglycation benefits. This formula is the only multivitamin to contain 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF), the active form of folate that is more bioavailable than folic acid. This greater bioavailability is especially important in people who have a genetic deficiency since it requires no conversion to become metabolically active.

Scientists have identified multiple mechanisms by which green tea extract helps protect against LDL oxidation, neuronal degradation, and a host of other structural and functional age-related changes. Life Extension Mix provides more green tea extract than found in commercial formulations.

Broccoli is one of the vegetables best documented to protect healthy DNA. The broccoli concentrate in Life Extension Mix is standardized to provide sulforaphane and other glucosinolates, compounds responsible for broccolis protective benefits.

Olive polyphenols help protect against LDL oxidation, quench free radicals, and stabilize cell membranes. Life Extension Mix contains an olive extract standardized to provide the best-documented polyphenol called hydroxytyrosol.

Luteolin is a flavonoid found in parsley, artichoke, basil, celery and other foods. It has shown the ability to help protect against DNA oxidative damage. When measured against 27 other citrus flavonoids, luteolin proved one of the most beneficial at maintaining healthy DNA. Luteolin also suppresses excess levels of interleukin-6 and interleukin-1b. Life Extension Mix contains a standardized dose of 8 mg of luteolin.

Lycopene is the red carotenoid in tomatoes that supports a healthy prostate and helps promote healthy lipid profiles for those already within a normal range. Lutein is found in spinach and collard greens and has been shown to help maintain eye macula pigment structure.

Pomegranate may be the most effective plant to help maintain optimal endothelial function. This pomegranate extract is standardized to provide the punicalagins and other polyphenols found in up to 2.6 ounces of pomegranate juice.

Sesame lignans increase tissue levels of vitamin E, including gamma tocopherol, and inhibit the formation of an inflammatory precursor called arachidonic acid.

The wild blueberry extract in Life Extension Mix is standardized to help maintain optimal neuronal function.

Bilberry extract has antioxidative properties that not only are neuroprotective, but help suppress photooxidative processes and have been shown to improve microcapillary circulation.

Cyanidin-3-glucoside is a berry compound that promotes healthy function of the retina to help support night vision.

Pterostilbene is a compound naturally found in blueberries and grapes that has been shown to have beneficial, anti-aging effects on gene expression and to promote healthy cognitive function.

D-glucarate is found in grapefruit, apples, oranges, broccoli, and Brussels sprouts. D-glucarate supports a detoxification process that helps to remove DNA toxins.

Unlike folic acid, 5-MTHFwhich is more bioavailableis able to cross the blood-brain barrier. This is especially important for people with cognitive difficulties to enhance the synthesis of acetylcholine in the brain, the neurotransmitter associated with memory. It also better facilitates maintenance of healthy homocysteine levels.

Vitamin D3 helps maintain healthy bone density and DNA. There is five times more vitamin D in Life Extension Mix compared to conventional multivitamins.

Life Extension Mix utilizes natural mixed tocopherols that provide natural vitamin E from alpha tocopherol and a small amount of gamma tocopherol (40 mg). Compared to synthetic vitamin E, the natural form is far more bioavailable.

N-acetyl-L-cysteine suppresses free radicals inside the cell and maintains healthy glutathione levels. Taurine may protect against free radicals between cells and supports eye health.

Life Extension Mix contains the sodium selenite, selenomethionine, and Se-methyl L-selenocysteine forms of selenium. Some scientific evidence suggests that consumption of selenium may reduce the risk of certain forms of cancer; however, the FDA has determined that this evidence is limited and not conclusive.

Zinc is often poorly absorbed, but Life Extension Mix provides two of the most bioavailable forms of zinc.

Boron is not only needed to maintain healthy bone density but may also help promote healthy prostate cell function.

Life Extension Mix provides a high amount of an optimal form of chromium to help maintain arterial wall structure and already normal glucose levels.

Magnesium helps protect arteries and heart valves, and supports heart and brain cells. Life Extension Mix provides high potencies of six different forms of magnesium to fully saturate the body with this life-saving mineral.

Choline, phosphatidylcholine and inositol help maintain high levels of acetylcholine in the brain to support cognitive function and memory.

A healthy type of dietary fat, medium-chain triglycerides are easily absorbed intact and transported directly to the liver, where they are immediately used for energy.

Due to license restrictions, this product is not for sale to doctors and MLM wholesalers in the USA, Canada or the Philippines.

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Life Extension Mix Tablets, 315 tablets

There are many reasons why people eat way too many calories that lack nutrition, such as the low cost and convenience of fast food as well as insufficient education about how their diet affects them.

The diabesity epidemic is not helped by the power that many unhealthy foods have over people. Those with strong willpower often fail to lose weight and keep it off because they are literally addicted to things they shouldnt be eating: processed, sugar-laden, starchy, fried foods.

Humans are thought to have a genetic preference for sweetness, which was originally meant to ensure survival. However, a mild desire for sweetness seems to have grown into a powerful need for sweetness that controls many lives.

You could easily become a victim of sugar addiction without realizing it since sugar is added to almost every packaged and prepared food on the market.

Children then graduate to breakfast cereals, which may portray themselves as wholesome but are actually loaded with sugar.

Its no wonder then that children become accustomed to sweet-tasting things and nearly always prefer them over healthier foods (like veggies). Parents who reward their kids with sweet treats dont help matters either.

Between sugar-laden foods (some of which appear healthy), rewards, and desserts, children can consume large amounts of sugar. About 35 years ago, a study pointed out that some children were consuming more than 280 g of sugar per average day!1

Just imagine how much healthier we could be if these numbers were lower.

To find an answer, researchers allowed rats to freely consume a sugar solution. When the sugar solution was removed, the rats exhibited impulsive behaviors similar to those brought on by drug withdrawal.2

Its no surprise the rats had that reaction. Consuming large amounts of sugar has been shown to release dopamine, the feel good neurotransmitter thats involved in memory and reward.3

The powerful effect that sugar has on our brain (making us feel good so we keep wanting more and more until we actually crave it and have withdrawals when enough isnt consumed) is analogous to the changes that take place with addictive drugs like cocaine.4 Scary!

Just like some people become addicted to drugs and some dont, some people become addicted to sugar and some dont. For some, the more sugar they consume, the more they crave. So if sugar is not used in moderation, addiction could occur and the risk of diabetes and obesity could increase. This, unfortunately, is the path so many are on now.

However, it is possible to live without added sugar! Sticking to fresh produce and making your own meals is one way to maintain control over their ingredients (or lack thereof). Healthy foods like fruits, veggies, and whole grains still contain sugar, but its naturally occurring and in lower amounts than foods sweetened with added sugar or corn syrup.

Read the labels of every food and beverage you put into your shopping cart! If it contains sugar, corn syrup, high-fructose corn syrup, fructose, sucrose, etc., these are red flags, and you should put them back on the shelf!

Addictions are hard to break. However, when people kick their sugar habit, they report more energy, weight loss, and many other health benefits.

If you regularly consume sugar, try going without it for a few days or weeks (if you can work up to that) and see how you feel. If you do find yourself facing irresistible cravings, try snacking on fresh fruit or engaging in some exercise to redirect your focus.

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The Life Extension Blog

We offer the best vitamin and supplement brands from big names like Life Extension vitamins and organic liquid supplements such as Drucker Labs/intraMAX, to extensively researched brands that only we carry, like Zetpil and Vision Clarity. Worried about freshness? We ship direct from the manufacturer; so if you order Life Extension vitamins, they will ship direct from Life Extension in their packaging, giving you the freshest product & newest formulations available.

This means we offer Reward Points and Coupon Codes on the highest quality, doctor-recommended vitamins and supplements available to help you get the lowest possible price! We are the only store that offers these year-round coupon codes as well as cash back for your very next order with our DR Reward Points. Our sole purpose is to serve you! We encourage you to check out all we have to offer here in our web-store, and please feel free to let us know if you have any questions.

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Life Extension: Natural Healthy Concepts

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Life Extension - The Vitamin Shoppe

Published studies have proven that those who eat more fruits and vegetables have less health problems. Few people, however, eat enough plant food to protect against common age-related decline. At the same time, commercialmultivitaminsdo not provide all vital plant components needed to maintain good health. Life Extension Mix offers a broad array of vegetable/fruit extracts. The upgraded Life Extension Mix now includes5-MTHF, the metabolically active form of folic acid.

Nicotinamide ribosideis a substance naturally found inmilk that has been shownto support mitochondrial health and thereby our energy generating processes. Moreover research suggests thatNicotinamide riboside alsopromotes pathways of longevity. Life Extension multivitamis are the only multivitamin formulas to contain nicotinamide riboside. The amount of nicotinamide riboside in the updated Life Extension Mix is equivalent to 13 cups of milk.

Scientists have identified multiple mechanisms by whichgreen teaextract helps protect against LDL oxidation, neuronal oxidation and other age-related changes. Life Extension Mix provides more green tea extract than in commercial formulations.Vitamin D3helps maintain healthy bone density and DNA. There is five times more vitamin D in Life Extension Mix compared to conventional multivitamins.

Broccoliis one of the vegetables best documented to protect healthy DNA. The concentrate in Life Extension Mix is standardised to provide compounds that lie behind broccolis protective benefits. D-glucarate, found in grapefruit, apples, oranges, broccoli and Brussels sprouts, helps to remove DNA toxins.Olive polyphenolshelp protect against LDL oxidation, quench free radicals and stabilise cell membranes. Life Extension Mix contains an olive extract that provides the best-documented polyphenol, called hydroxytyrosol.Luteolinis a flavonoid found in parsley, artichoke, basil, celery and other food. It helps to protect against DNA oxidative damage and has been proven as the most beneficial flavonoid at maintaining healthy DNA. Life Extension Mix contains a standardised dose of 8 mg of luteolin.

Lycopeneis the red carotenoid found in tomatoes. It supports a healthy prostate and helps to promote healthy lipid profiles. Lutein is found in spinach and collard greens and has been shown to help maintain eye macula pigment structure.Pomegranatemay be the most effective plant for maintaining optimal endothelial function. This pomegranate extract provides punicalagins and other polyphenols found in up to 2.6 ounces of pomegranate juice. Sesame lignans increase tissue levels of vitamin E, including gamma tocopherol, and inhibit the formation of an inflammatory precursor, called arachidonic acid.

Wildblueberryextract assists in maintaining optimal neuronal function. Pterostilbene is a compound naturally found in blueberries and grapes that has been shown to have anti-ageing effects. Cyanidin-3-Glucoside is a berry compound that promotes healthy function of the retina to help support night vision.Pyridoxal 5-phosphatehelps to protect against glycation, a toxic process involved in accelerated ageing. Life Extension Mix contains nowmethylcobalaminethat allows for superior absorption compared to other forms of B12. Life Extension Mix utilises natural mixed tocopherols that providenatural vitamin Efrom alpha tocopherol and a small amount of gamma tocopherol (40 mg). Compared to synthetic vitamin E, the natural form is far more bioavailable to the body.

N-acetyl-L-cysteinesuppresses free radicals inside the cell and maintains healthy glutathione levels.Taurinemay protect cells against free radicals and supports eye health. Life Extension Mix contains the sodium selenite, selenomethionine and Se-methyl L-selenocysteine forms ofselenium. Some scientific evidence suggests that consumption of selenium may reduce the risk of certain forms of cancer.Zincis often poorly absorbed. To aid with this issue, Life Extension Mix provides two of the most bioavailable forms of zinc.Boronis not only needed to maintain healthy bone density, but may also help promote healthy prostate cell function.

Life Extension Mix provides a high amount of an optimal form ofchromiumto help maintain arterial wall structure and already normal glucose levels. Magnesium helps to protect arteries and heart valves and supports heart and brain cells. Life Extension Mix provides high potency of six different forms ofmagnesiumto saturate the body with this mineral. Maintaining high levels of acetylcholine in the brain contributes to better cognitive function and memory. Life Extension Mix contains two types of choline, which are used by your body for the formation of acetylcholine.

Life Extension Mix is by far the most completemulti-nutrient formulaanywhere with the most popular vitamin and mineral supplements, antioxidants, water and fat soluble vitamin C, the ideal forms of vitamin E and phyto-extracts that help protect against cellular DNA damage and age related problems.

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Vitamins & Supplements | Life Extension Europe

Established in 1980, the Life Extension Foundation is a nonprofit organization, whose long-range goal is to radically extend the healthy human lifespan by discovering scientific methods to control aging and eradicate disease. One of the largest organizations of its kind in the world, the Life Extension Foundation has always been at the forefront of discovering new scientific breakthroughs for use in developing novel disease prevention and treatment protocols to improve the quality and length of human life. Through its private funding of research programs aimed at identifying and developing new therapies to slow and even reverse the aging process, the Life Extension Foundation seeks to reduce, and ultimately eliminate, such age-related killers as heart disease, stroke, cancer and Alzheimers disease.

The Life Extension Foundation is a nonprofit organization whose goal is to extend the healthy human lifespan by discovering scientific methods to control aging and eradicate disease. continue >>

Since its inception in 1980, the Life Extension Foundation has continued its dedication to finding new scientific methods for eradicating old age, disease and death. continue >>

The Life Extension Foundation has been a world leader in uncovering pioneering approaches for preventing and treating diseases. continue >>

Long-time members are keenly aware of the scientific research that Life Extension Foundation funds to develop validated methods to slow and reverse the aging process. continue >>

Life Extension Foundation Federal Income Tax information is now available to download in Adobe PDF format. continue >>

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About Life Extension: Anti-Aging, Health Supplements ...

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Life Extension Vitamins | Health Supplements | Garcinia ...

Life extension science, also known as anti-aging medicine, indefinite life extension, experimental gerontology, and biomedical gerontology, is the study of slowing down or reversing the processes of aging to extend both the maximum and average lifespan. Some researchers in this area, and "life extensionists", "immortalists" or "longevists" (those who wish to achieve longer lives themselves), believe that future breakthroughs in tissue rejuvenation, stem cells, regenerative medicine, molecular repair, gene therapy, pharmaceuticals, and organ replacement (such as with artificial organs or xenotransplantations) will eventually enable humans to have indefinite lifespans (agerasia[1]) through complete rejuvenation to a healthy youthful condition.

The sale of purported anti-aging products such as nutrition, physical fitness, skin care, hormone replacements, vitamins, supplements and herbs is a lucrative global industry, with the US market generating about $50billion of revenue each year.[2] Some medical experts state that the use of such products has not been proven to affect the aging process and many claims regarding the efficacy of these marketed products have been roundly criticized by medical experts, including the American Medical Association.[2][3][4][5][6]

The ethical ramifications of life extension are debated by bioethicists.

During the process of aging, an organism accumulates damage to its macromolecules, cells, tissues, and organs. Specifically, aging is characterized as and thought to be caused by "genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, loss of proteostasis, deregulated nutrient sensing, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, stem cell exhaustion, and altered intercellular communication."[7]Oxidation damage to cellular contents caused by free radicals is believed to contribute to aging as well.[8][8][9]

The longest a human has ever been proven to live is 122 years, the case of Jeanne Calment who was born in 1875 and died in 1997, whereas the maximum lifespan of a wildtype mouse, commonly used as a model in research on aging, is about three years.[10] Genetic differences between humans and mice that may account for these different aging rates include differences in efficiency of DNA repair, antioxidant defenses, energy metabolism, proteostasis maintenance, and recycling mechanisms such as autophagy.[11]

Average lifespan in a population is lowered by infant and child mortality, which are frequently linked to infectious diseases or nutrition problems. Later in life, vulnerability to accidents and age-related chronic disease such as cancer or cardiovascular disease play an increasing role in mortality. Extension of expected lifespan can often be achieved by access to improved medical care, vaccinations, good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking.

Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes and by environmental factors. Widely recognized methods of extending maximum lifespan in model organisms such as nematodes, fruit flies, and mice include caloric restriction, gene manipulation, and administration of pharmaceuticals.[12] Another technique uses evolutionary pressures such as breeding from only older members or altering levels of extrinsic mortality.[13][14] Some animals such as hydra, planarian flatworms, and certain sponges, corals, and jellyfish do not die of old age and exhibit potential immortality.[15][16][17][18]

Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan in humans could be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues, reversal of harmful epigenetic changes, or the enhancement of telomerase enzyme activity.[19][20]

Research geared towards life extension strategies in various organisms is currently under way at a number of academic and private institutions. Since 2009, investigators have found ways to increase the lifespan of nematode worms and yeast by 10-fold; the record in nematodes was achieved through genetic engineering and the extension in yeast by a combination of genetic engineering and caloric restriction.[21] A 2009 review of longevity research noted: "Extrapolation from worms to mammals is risky at best, and it cannot be assumed that interventions will result in comparable life extension factors. Longevity gains from dietary restriction, or from mutations studied previously, yield smaller benefits to Drosophila than to nematodes, and smaller still to mammals. This is not unexpected, since mammals have evolved to live many times the worm's lifespan, and humans live nearly twice as long as the next longest-lived primate. From an evolutionary perspective, mammals and their ancestors have already undergone several hundred million years of natural selection favoring traits that could directly or indirectly favor increased longevity, and may thus have already settled on gene sequences that promote lifespan. Moreover, the very notion of a "life-extension factor" that could apply across taxa presumes a linear response rarely seen in biology."[21]

Much life extension research focuses on nutritiondiets or supplementsas a means to extend lifespan, although few of these have been systematically tested for significant longevity effects. The many diets promoted by anti-aging advocates are often contradictory.[original research?] A dietary pattern with some support from scientific research is caloric restriction.[22][23]

Preliminary studies of caloric restriction on humans using surrogate measurements have provided evidence that caloric restriction may have powerful protective effect against secondary aging in humans. Caloric restriction in humans may reduce the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis.[24]

The free-radical theory of aging suggests that antioxidant supplements, such as vitaminC, vitaminE, Q10, lipoic acid, carnosine, and N-acetylcysteine, might extend human life. However, combined evidence from several clinical trials suggest that -carotene supplements and high doses of vitaminE increase mortality rates.[25]Resveratrol is a sirtuin stimulant that has been shown to extend life in animal models, but the effect of resveratrol on lifespan in humans is unclear as of 2011.[26]

There are many traditional herbs purportedly used to extend the health-span, including a Chinese tea called Jiaogulan (Gynostemma pentaphyllum), dubbed "China's Immortality Herb."[27]Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine, describes a class of longevity herbs called rasayanas, including Bacopa monnieri, Ocimum sanctum, Curcuma longa, Centella asiatica, Phyllanthus emblica, Withania somnifera and many others.[27]

The anti-aging industry offers several hormone therapies. Some of these have been criticized for possible dangers to the patient and a lack of proven effect. For example, the American Medical Association has been critical of some anti-aging hormone therapies.[2]

Although some recent clinical studies have shown that low-dose growth hormone (GH) treatment for adults with GH deficiency changes the body composition by increasing muscle mass, decreasing fat mass, increasing bone density and muscle strength, improves cardiovascular parameters (i.e. decrease of LDL cholesterol), and affects the quality of life without significant side effects,[28][29][30] the evidence for use of growth hormone as an anti-aging therapy is mixed and based on animal studies. There are mixed reports that GH or IGF-1 signaling modulates the aging process in humans and about whether the direction of its effect is positive or negative.[31]

Some critics dispute the portrayal of aging as a disease. For example, Leonard Hayflick, who determined that fibroblasts are limited to around 50cell divisions, reasons that aging is an unavoidable consequence of entropy. Hayflick and fellow biogerontologists Jay Olshansky and Bruce Carnes have strongly criticized the anti-aging industry in response to what they see as unscrupulous profiteering from the sale of unproven anti-aging supplements.[4]

Politics relevant to the substances of life extension pertain mostly to communications and availability.[citation needed]

In the United States, product claims on food and drug labels are strictly regulated. The First Amendment (freedom of speech) protects third-party publishers' rights to distribute fact, opinion and speculation on life extension practices. Manufacturers and suppliers also provide informational publications, but because they market the substances, they are subject to monitoring and enforcement by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), which polices claims by marketers. What constitutes the difference between truthful and false claims is hotly debated and is a central controversy in this arena.[citation needed]

Research by Sobh and Martin (2011) suggests that people buy anti-aging products to obtain a hoped-for self (e.g., keeping a youthful skin) or to avoid a feared-self (e.g., looking old). The research shows that when consumers pursue a hoped-for self, it is expectations of success that most strongly drive their motivation to use the product. The research also shows why doing badly when trying to avoid a feared self is more motivating than doing well. Interestingly, when product use is seen to fail it is more motivating than success when consumers seek to avoid a feared-self.[32]

The best-characterized anti-aging therapy was, and still is, CR. In some studies calorie restriction has been shown to extend the life of mice, yeast, and rhesus monkeys significantly.[33][34] However, a more recent study has shown that in contrast, calorie restriction has not improved the survival rate in rhesus monkeys.[35] Long-term human trials of CR are now being done. It is the hope of the anti-aging researchers that resveratrol, found in grapes, or pterostilbene, a more bio-available substance, found in blueberries, as well as rapamycin, a biotic substance discovered on Easter Island, may act as CR mimetics to increase the life span of humans.[36]

More recent work reveals that the effects long attributed to caloric restriction may be obtained by restriction of protein alone, and specifically of just the sulfur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine.[37][38] Current research is into the metabolic pathways affected by variation in availability of products of these amino acids.

There are a number of chemicals intended to slow the aging process currently being studied in animal models.[39] One type of research is related to the observed effects a calorie restriction (CR) diet, which has been shown to extend lifespan in some animals[40] Based on that research, there have been attempts to develop drugs that will have the same effect on the aging process as a caloric restriction diet, which are known as Caloric restriction mimetic drugs. Some drugs that are already approved for other uses have been studied for possible longevity effects on laboratory animals because of a possible CR-mimic effect; they include rapamycin,[41]metformin and other geroprotectors.[42]Resveratrol and pterostilbene are dietary supplements that have also been studied in this context.[36][43][44]

Other attempts to create anti-aging drugs have taken different research paths. One notable direction of research has been research into the possibility of using the enzyme telomerase in order to counter the process of telomere shortening.[45] However, there are potential dangers in this, since some research has also linked telomerase to cancer and to tumor growth and formation.[46] In addition, some preparations, called senolytics are designed to effectively deplete senescent cells which poison an organism by their secretions.[47]

Future advances in nanomedicine could give rise to life extension through the repair of many processes thought to be responsible for aging. K. Eric Drexler, one of the founders of nanotechnology, postulated cell repair machines, including ones operating within cells and utilizing as yet hypothetical molecular computers, in his 1986 book Engines of Creation. Raymond Kurzweil, a futurist and transhumanist, stated in his book The Singularity Is Near that he believes that advanced medical nanorobotics could completely remedy the effects of aging by 2030.[48]According to Richard Feynman, it was his former graduate student and collaborator Albert Hibbs who originally suggested to him (circa 1959) the idea of a medical use for Feynman's theoretical micromachines (see nanotechnology). Hibbs suggested that certain repair machines might one day be reduced in size to the point that it would, in theory, be possible to (as Feynman put it) "swallow the doctor". The idea was incorporated into Feynman's 1959 essay There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom.[49]

Some life extensionists suggest that therapeutic cloning and stem cell research could one day provide a way to generate cells, body parts, or even entire bodies (generally referred to as reproductive cloning) that would be genetically identical to a prospective patient. Recently, the US Department of Defense initiated a program to research the possibility of growing human body parts on mice.[50] Complex biological structures, such as mammalian joints and limbs, have not yet been replicated. Dog and primate brain transplantation experiments were conducted in the mid-20th century but failed due to rejection and the inability to restore nerve connections. As of 2006, the implantation of bio-engineered bladders grown from patients' own cells has proven to be a viable treatment for bladder disease.[51] Proponents of body part replacement and cloning contend that the required biotechnologies are likely to appear earlier than other life-extension technologies.

The use of human stem cells, particularly embryonic stem cells, is controversial. Opponents' objections generally are based on interpretations of religious teachings or ethical considerations. Proponents of stem cell research point out that cells are routinely formed and destroyed in a variety of contexts. Use of stem cells taken from the umbilical cord or parts of the adult body may not provoke controversy.[52]

The controversies over cloning are similar, except general public opinion in most countries stands in opposition to reproductive cloning. Some proponents of therapeutic cloning predict the production of whole bodies, lacking consciousness, for eventual brain transplantation.

Replacement of biological (susceptible to diseases) organs with mechanical ones could extend life. This is the goal of 2045 Initiative.[53]

For cryonicists (advocates of cryopreservation), storing the body at low temperatures after death may provide an "ambulance" into a future in which advanced medical technologies may allow resuscitation and repair. They speculate cryogenic temperatures will minimize changes in biological tissue for many years, giving the medical community ample time to cure all disease, rejuvenate the aged and repair any damage that is caused by the cryopreservation process.

Many cryonicists do not believe that legal death is "real death" because stoppage of heartbeat and breathingthe usual medical criteria for legal deathoccur before biological death of cells and tissues of the body. Even at room temperature, cells may take hours to die and days to decompose. Although neurological damage occurs within 46 minutes of cardiac arrest, the irreversible neurodegenerative processes do not manifest for hours.[54] Cryonicists state that rapid cooling and cardio-pulmonary support applied immediately after certification of death can preserve cells and tissues for long-term preservation at cryogenic temperatures. People, particularly children, have survived up to an hour without heartbeat after submersion in ice water. In one case, full recovery was reported after 45 minutes underwater.[55] To facilitate rapid preservation of cells and tissue, cryonics "standby teams" are available to wait by the bedside of patients who are to be cryopreserved to apply cooling and cardio-pulmonary support as soon as possible after declaration of death.[56]

No mammal has been successfully cryopreserved and brought back to life, with the exception of frozen human embryos. Resuscitation of a postembryonic human from cryonics is not possible with current science. Some scientists still support the idea based on their expectations of the capabilities of future science.[57][58]

Another proposed life extension technology would combine existing and predicted future biochemical and genetic techniques. SENS proposes that rejuvenation may be obtained by removing aging damage via the use of stem cells and tissue engineering, removal of telomere-lengthening machinery, allotopic expression of mitochondrial proteins, targeted ablation of cells, immunotherapeutic clearance, and novel lysosomal hydrolases.[59]

While many biogerontologists find these ideas "worthy of discussion"[60][61] and SENS conferences feature important research in the field,[62][63] some contend that the alleged benefits are too speculative given the current state of technology, referring to it as "fantasy rather than science".[3][5]

Gene therapy, in which nucleic acid polymers are delivered as a drug and are either expressed as proteins, interfere with the expression of proteins, or correct genetic mutations, has been proposed as a future strategy to prevent aging.[64][65]

A large array of genetic modifications have been found to increase lifespan in model organisms such as yeast, nematode worms, fruit flies, and mice. As of 2013, the longest extension of life caused by a single gene manipulation was roughly 150% in mice and 10-fold in nematode worms.[66]

In The Selfish Gene, Richard Dawkins describes an approach to life-extension that involves "fooling genes" into thinking the body is young.[67] Dawkins attributes inspiration for this idea to Peter Medawar. The basic idea is that our bodies are composed of genes that activate throughout our lifetimes, some when we are young and others when we are older. Presumably, these genes are activated by environmental factors, and the changes caused by these genes activating can be lethal. It is a statistical certainty that we possess more lethal genes that activate in later life than in early life. Therefore, to extend life, we should be able to prevent these genes from switching on, and we should be able to do so by "identifying changes in the internal chemical environment of a body that take place during aging... and by simulating the superficial chemical properties of a young body".[68]

According to some lines of thinking, the ageing process is routed into a basic reduction of biological complexity,[69] and thus loss of information. In order to reverse this loss, gerontologist Marios Kyriazis suggested that it is necessary to increase input of actionable and meaningful information both individually (into individual brains),[70] and collectively (into societal systems).[71] This technique enhances overall biological function through up-regulation of immune, hormonal, antioxidant and other parameters, resulting in improved age-repair mechanisms. Working in parallel with natural evolutionary mechanisms that can facilitate survival through increased fitness, Kryiazis claims that the technique may lead to a reduction of the rate of death as a function of age, i.e. indefinite lifespan.[72]

One hypothetical future strategy that, as some suggest, "eliminates" the complications related to a physical body, involves the copying or transferring (e.g. by progressively replacing neurons with transistors) of a conscious mind from a biological brain to a non-biological computer system or computational device. The basic idea is to scan the structure of a particular brain in detail, and then construct a software model of it that is so faithful to the original that, when run on appropriate hardware, it will behave in essentially the same way as the original brain.[73] Whether or not an exact copy of one's mind constitutes actual life extension is matter of debate.

The extension of life has been a desire of humanity and a mainstay motif in the history of scientific pursuits and ideas throughout history, from the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh and the Egyptian Smith medical papyrus, all the way through the Taoists, Ayurveda practitioners, alchemists, hygienists such as Luigi Cornaro, Johann Cohausen and Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland, and philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Ren Descartes, Benjamin Franklin and Nicolas Condorcet. However, the beginning of the modern period in this endeavor can be traced to the end of the 19th beginning of the 20th century, to the so-called fin-de-sicle (end of the century) period, denoted as an end of an epoch and characterized by the rise of scientific optimism and therapeutic activism, entailing the pursuit of life extension (or life-extensionism). Among the foremost researchers of life extension at this period were the Nobel Prize winning biologist Elie Metchnikoff (1845-1916) -- the author of the cell theory of immunity and vice director of Institut Pasteur in Paris, and Charles-douard Brown-Squard (1817-1894) -- the president of the French Biological Society and one of the founders of modern endocrinology.[74]

Sociologist James Hughes claims that science has been tied to a cultural narrative of conquering death since the Age of Enlightenment. He cites Francis Bacon (15611626) as an advocate of using science and reason to extend human life, noting Bacon's novel New Atlantis, wherein scientists worked toward delaying aging and prolonging life. Robert Boyle (16271691), founding member of the Royal Society, also hoped that science would make substantial progress with life extension, according to Hughes, and proposed such experiments as "to replace the blood of the old with the blood of the young". Biologist Alexis Carrel (18731944) was inspired by a belief in indefinite human lifespan that he developed after experimenting with cells, says Hughes.[75]

In 1970, the American Aging Association was formed under the impetus of Denham Harman, originator of the free radical theory of aging. Harman wanted an organization of biogerontologists that was devoted to research and to the sharing of information among scientists interested in extending human lifespan.

In 1976, futurists Joel Kurtzman and Philip Gordon wrote No More Dying. The Conquest Of Aging And The Extension Of Human Life, (ISBN 0-440-36247-4) the first popular book on research to extend human lifespan. Subsequently, Kurtzman was invited to testify before the House Select Committee on Aging, chaired by Claude Pepper of Florida, to discuss the impact of life extension on the Social Security system.

Saul Kent published The Life Extension Revolution (ISBN 0-688-03580-9) in 1980 and created a nutraceutical firm called the Life Extension Foundation, a non-profit organization that promotes dietary supplements. The Life Extension Foundation publishes a periodical called Life Extension Magazine. The 1982 bestselling book Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach (ISBN 0-446-51229-X) by Durk Pearson and Sandy Shaw further popularized the phrase "life extension".

In 1983, Roy Walford, a life-extensionist and gerontologist, published a popular book called Maximum Lifespan. In 1988, Walford and his student Richard Weindruch summarized their research into the ability of calorie restriction to extend the lifespan of rodents in The Retardation of Aging and Disease by Dietary Restriction (ISBN 0-398-05496-7). It had been known since the work of Clive McCay in the 1930s that calorie restriction can extend the maximum lifespan of rodents. But it was the work of Walford and Weindruch that gave detailed scientific grounding to that knowledge.[citation needed] Walford's personal interest in life extension motivated his scientific work and he practiced calorie restriction himself. Walford died at the age of 80 from complications caused by amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Money generated by the non-profit Life Extension Foundation allowed Saul Kent to finance the Alcor Life Extension Foundation, the world's largest cryonics organization. The cryonics movement had been launched in 1962 by Robert Ettinger's book, The Prospect of Immortality. In the 1960s, Saul Kent had been a co-founder of the Cryonics Society of New York. Alcor gained national prominence when baseball star Ted Williams was cryonically preserved by Alcor in 2002 and a family dispute arose as to whether Williams had really wanted to be cryopreserved.

Regulatory and legal struggles between the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Life Extension Foundation included seizure of merchandise and court action. In 1991, Saul Kent and Bill Faloon, the principals of the Foundation, were jailed. The LEF accused the FDA of perpetrating a "Holocaust" and "seeking gestapo-like power" through its regulation of drugs and marketing claims.[76]

In 2003, Doubleday published "The Immortal Cell: One Scientist's Quest to Solve the Mystery of Human Aging," by Michael D. West. West emphasised the potential role of embryonic stem cells in life extension.[77]

Other modern life extensionists include writer Gennady Stolyarov, who insists that death is "the enemy of us all, to be fought with medicine, science, and technology";[78]transhumanist philosopher Zoltan Istvan, who proposes that the "transhumanist must safeguard one's own existence above all else";[79] futurist George Dvorsky, who considers aging to be a problem that desperately needs to be solved;[80] and recording artist Steve Aoki, who has been called "one of the most prolific campaigners for life extension".[81]

In 1991, the American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine (A4M) was formed as a non-profit organization to create what it considered an anti-aging medical specialty distinct from geriatrics, and to hold trade shows for physicians interested in anti-aging medicine. The A4M trains doctors in anti-aging medicine and publicly promotes the field of anti-aging research. It has about 26,000 members, of whom about 97% are doctors and scientists.[82] The American Board of Medical Specialties recognizes neither anti-aging medicine nor the A4M's professional standing.[83]

In 2003, Aubrey de Grey and David Gobel formed the Methuselah Foundation, which gives financial grants to anti-aging research projects. In 2009, de Grey and several others founded the SENS Research Foundation, a California-based scientific research organization which conducts research into aging and funds other anti-aging research projects at various universities.[84] In 2013, Google announced Calico, a new company based in San Francisco that will harness new technologies to increase scientific understanding of the biology of aging.[85] It is led by Arthur D. Levinson,[86] and its research team includes scientists such as Hal V. Barron, David Botstein, and Cynthia Kenyon. In 2014, biologist Craig Venter founded Human Longevity Inc., a company dedicated to scientific research to end aging through genomics and cell therapy. They received funding with the goal of compiling a comprehensive human genotype, microbiome, and phenotype database.[87]

Aside from private initiatives, aging research is being conducted in university laboratories, and includes universities such as Harvard and UCLA. University researchers have made a number of breakthroughs in extending the lives of mice and insects by reversing certain aspects of aging.[88][89][90][91]

Though many scientists state[92] that life extension and radical life extension are possible, there are still no international or national programs focused on radical life extension. There are political forces staying for and against life extension. By 2012, in Russia, the United States, Israel, and the Netherlands, the Longevity political parties started. They aimed to provide political support to radical life extension research and technologies, and ensure the fastest possible and at the same time soft transition of society to the next step life without aging and with radical life extension, and to provide access to such technologies to most currently living people.[93]

Leon Kass (chairman of the US President's Council on Bioethics from 2001 to 2005) has questioned whether potential exacerbation of overpopulation problems would make life extension unethical.[94] He states his opposition to life extension with the words:

"simply to covet a prolonged life span for ourselves is both a sign and a cause of our failure to open ourselves to procreation and to any higher purpose ... [The] desire to prolong youthfulness is not only a childish desire to eat one's life and keep it; it is also an expression of a childish and narcissistic wish incompatible with devotion to posterity."[95]

John Harris, former editor-in-chief of the Journal of Medical Ethics, argues that as long as life is worth living, according to the person himself, we have a powerful moral imperative to save the life and thus to develop and offer life extension therapies to those who want them.[96]

Transhumanist philosopher Nick Bostrom has argued that any technological advances in life extension must be equitably distributed and not restricted to a privileged few.[97] In an extended metaphor entitled "The Fable of the Dragon-Tyrant", Bostrom envisions death as a monstrous dragon who demands human sacrifices. In the fable, after a lengthy debate between those who believe the dragon is a fact of life and those who believe the dragon can and should be destroyed, the dragon is finally killed. Bostrom argues that political inaction allowed many preventable human deaths to occur.[98]

Life extension is a controversial topic due to fear of overpopulation and possible effects on society.[99] Biogerontologist Aubrey De Grey counters the overpopulation critique by pointing out that the therapy could postpone or eliminate menopause, allowing women to space out their pregnancies over more years and thus decreasing the yearly population growth rate.[100] Moreover, the philosopher and futurist Max More argues that, given the fact the worldwide population growth rate is slowing down and is projected to eventually stabilize and begin falling, superlongevity would be unlikely to contribute to overpopulation.[99]

A Spring 2013 Pew Research poll in the United States found that 38% of Americans would want life extension treatments, and 56% would reject it. However, it also found that 68% believed most people would want it and that only 4% consider an "ideal lifespan" to be more than 120 years. The median "ideal lifespan" was 91 years of age and the majority of the public (63%) viewed medical advances aimed at prolonging life as generally good. 41% of Americans believed that radical life extension (RLE) would be good for society, while 51% said they believed it would be bad for society.[101] One possibility for why 56% of Americans claim they would reject life extension treatments may be due to the cultural perception that living longer would result in a longer period of decrepitude, and that the elderly in our current society are unhealthy.[102]

Religious people are no more likely to oppose life extension than the unaffiliated,[101] though some variation exists between religious denominations.

Most mainstream medical organizations and practitioners do not consider aging to be a disease. David Sinclair says: "Idon't see aging as a disease, but as a collection of quite predictable diseases caused by the deterioration of the body".[103] The two main arguments used are that aging is both inevitable and universal while diseases are not.[104] However, not everyone agrees. Harry R. Moody, Director of Academic Affairs for AARP, notes that what is normal and what is disease strongly depends on a historical context.[105] David Gems, Assistant Director of the Institute of Healthy Ageing, strongly argues that aging should be viewed as a disease.[106] In response to the universality of aging, David Gems notes that it is as misleading as arguing that Basenji are not dogs because they do not bark.[107] Because of the universality of aging he calls it a 'special sort of disease'. Robert M. Perlman, coined the terms aging syndrome and disease complex in 1954 to describe aging.[108]

The discussion whether aging should be viewed as a disease or not has important implications. It would stimulate pharmaceutical companies to develop life extension therapies and in the United States of America, it would also increase the regulation of the anti-aging market by the FDA. Anti-aging now falls under the regulations for cosmetic medicine which are less tight than those for drugs.[107][109]

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