Category Archives: High Seas

By Lewis Kihumba, BirdLife-Africa, Nairobi, Kenya

High Seas or Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (ABNJ) - outside of states jurisdictions, cover more than 50% of the Earths surface and provide critical ecosystem services to humanity. These areas are increasingly under threat from human activities including land-based activities, fishing, and emerging deep-sea mining leading to pollution and disturbance to species and habitats. There exists strong ecological connectivity between Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction and national waters. Simply put, the ocean knows no political boundaries and ecological impacts are felt across borders.

The United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) governs the rights and duties of states in maritime zones. Additionally, ocean governance takes the form of sectoral initiatives in various sectors including fisheries and shipping. There are also a number of regional initiatives concerned with ocean governance. However, the governance of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction is fragmented and complex. In 2015, the United Nations (UN) passed Resolution 69/292, which began negotiations on a treaty on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity. In 2018, the negotiations were formally launched, focussing on four main elements namely: Marine Genetic Resources, including questions on benefit sharing, Environment Impact Assessments, Area based Management Tools, including Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Capacity building and marine technology transfer.

The Abidjan Convention, ratified in 1984, is one of Africas established organisations active in ocean governance on the continent. The Convention covers a geographical area of 22 countries on the Atlantic seaboard and provides a framework for the protection of marine and coastal environment in the region. The STRONG High Seas initiative which the Abidjan Convention is a partner, provides a platform and facilitates dialogue among Member States on issues around Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) and the treaty currently being negotiated.

African States face a number of challenges, including limited mandates to address BBNJ issues, limited cross-sectoral co-operation, uneven participation in negotiations around international agreements and diverse cultures and languages. Consequently, a Working Group, with representation from the Abidjan Conventions member States, was constituted to explore areas of mutual interest, for co-operation and opportunities for joint programmes and a coordinated approach to ocean protection and governance in the region. This Working Group has had a number of meetings with the latest one in July 2020, as preparations gather pace for the Abidjan Convention 13th Conference of Parties (COP) to be held in April 2021. STRONG High Seas is working with the Abidjan Convention Working Group to produce research and to hold workshops to build awareness of the importance of BBNJ in the region and support decision-making processes in this topic.

The project also seeks to improve the participation of African States in the negotiations taking place around a binding treaty for BBNJ. Ocean governance should be informed by robust scientific information. To this end, the STRONG High Seas has developed an ecological baseline study highlighting the status of marine biodiversity in the South East Atlantic, which is critical for key decision makers in the region. Additionally, STRONG High Seas has started a study looking at the socio-economic connections between Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction, and national waters and the relation of these socio-economic activities with marine biodiversity. Linking these efforts in the West, Central and Southern Africa, with other initiatives around the world, will provide the momentum needed to achieve effective and meaningful ocean governance for Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction. Ultimately, as the conversation on conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity continues, African states will be instrumental in the realization of an inclusive ocean governance framework.

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African states are critical in advancing ocean governance - The Patriotic Vanguard

A series of events, ranging from social unrest in the United States, Hong Kong and much of Europe to the Covid-19 pandemic, which has infected more than 18 million people and killed nearly 700,000 of them, should prove that 2020 has so far been a very difficult year to navigate.

The South China Sea has not been spared the nail-biting tension of 2020. As claimant states are preoccupied with efforts to fight the pandemic, numerous worrying incidents have occurred within the maritime territory, exacerbating the animosity among the states. The presence of external actors has added strain to the geopolitical turmoil.

Violations of sovereign rights form one of the most pressing issues in the South China Sea. The biggest incident so far was the West Capella standoff after Malaysia started an oil and gas survey in late 2019 within the Malaysia-Vietnam Joint Defined Area.

The operation of the West Capella drillship prompted Beijing to dispatch several China Coast Guard (CCG) vessels to trail, and harass, the drillship and its supply vessels. Vietnam also scrambled some of its maritime militia into the area to observe the drillship.

Meanwhile, Malaysia doubled-down on its initial move by deploying the Royal Malaysian Navys KD Jebat, a 2,270-ton guided missile frigate, to protect the West Capellas operation. At one time the Malaysian warship forced a CCG vessel to stand down.

Beijing has simultaneously initiated a showdown with Malaysia at the Luconia Shoals, where CCG vessels maintain a near-constant presence off the coast of Sarawak. At the culmination of it all, China sent its survey vessel Haiyang Dizhi 8, along with a flotilla of coast guard and paramilitary vessels.

In response to the standoff, the US maintained a presence there for a month with an array of multi-day patrols involving the US Navy, and a flyby of US Air Force bombers. On top of that, the US conducted five Freedom of Navigation Operations (FONOPs) in the South China Sea in the first half of the year to challenge the unilateral claims of China on the entirety of the South China Sea, and to maintain the act of innocent passage by any ships on the high seas and held a joint military exercise with Australia in April.

Another incident pitted China against the Philippines at Commodore Reef in February. It started when Philippine Navy corvette BRP Conrado Yap encountered a Peoples Liberation Army Navy corvette during a patrol mission in the area. As the Philippine Navy radioed the PLA Navy to continue to their next destination, the PLA Navy insisted that the Commodore Reef area was a sovereign territory of China. BRP Conrado Yap later identified that the PLA Navy had their weapons aimed toward the Philippine Navy.

This incident not only amounts to a violation of Philippines EEZ but also to the illegal use of threat in high seas, which is in direct breach of the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea, to which China is a party.

The rising tension caused a spillover effect on Indonesia, with CCG vessels constantly seen trespassing into Indonesias Exclusive Economic Zone from December 2019 to January 2020.

The turmoil has gone unabated when the negotiation of the Code of Conduct (CoC) in South China Sea has been put on hold, mostly because of the pandemic.

The talks on the CoC, however, have been subject to criticism in the first place. One American scholar commented that the current draft, passed in September 2019, had very little agreed upon. Some points are still very contentious, such as dispute settlement procedures, and fishing and seabed management. Meanwhile, a Singaporean scholar said that, as the negotiation was suspended, Beijing was consolidating its presence amid the Covid-19 outbreak. As ASEAN member states have their hands full in dealing with the pandemic, Beijing wants to raise its leverage in the negotiation when it restarts.

Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing is another source of disputes among claimant states in the South China Sea. A fleet of more than 300 Vietnamese fishing vessels ventured into Chinese waters around February 2020. Some vessels were identified to operate with their transponders switched off. Several Chinese analysts suggest that some vessels were there to spy on Chinese military facilities.

Several cases of illegal fishing were also identified venturing into Indonesian waters. An incident in March saw Indonesian authorities capture five Vietnamese fishing vessels and detain the 68 crew members. In the following month, two Vietnamese fishing vessels were seized in the North Natuna Sea.

There seems to be no indication that the situation in the South China Sea will simmer down anytime soon. With the US set to hold an election in November, President Donald Trump cannot afford to back down against Chinas assertive behaviour within the South China Sea.

This will encourage emboldened Southeast Asian claimant states to fight further aggression, as the Philippines has demonstrated in its decision to suspend termination of its Visiting Forces Agreement with the US.

It only shows that claimant states need support to stake their claims within the area.

With the CoC negotiation stagnating in these pressing times, there will be a lot clutter to clean up before any agreement could be pushed forward between the South China Sea littoral states. The Jakarta Post/Asia News Network

Gilang Kembara is a researcher at Department of International Relations, Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) Indonesia. The original article was published in CSIS Commentaries.

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No end to South China Sea disputes without code of conduct - The Star Online

High Seas is a series of puzzles that hit Netflix in May 2019. The show has 2 seasons that have been quite average and were dubbed into the English language by Netflix. Fans of the series will receive the third season of the show. The renewal was officially announced in November 2019 and filming for Season 3 began in the same month. The show is slated for a release in August 2020.

Great news for fans here! In November 2019, a Spanish journalist published that the creators had already started filming High Seas Season 3. In fact, it is said that he also started improving in season 4 in installments. The production team behind the series shared that they are set to produce 16 episodes.

Source: Trinikid

These will be divided into eight chapters into 2 chapters. As reported, the premiere of High Seas season 3 will take place on August 7, 2020, it has not yet been confirmed if it will be the last season or so, but much entertainment and drama is confirmed, which fans season 3 will be able to.

The second season of High Seas ended with Cruise arriving in Rio de Janeiro. In addition, some mysteries are open with the second season. Therefore, the next season will probably focus on them. In addition, Cruise dropped his anchor in Rio. It is unclear when the cruise will continue or fall in the center in the next season. The show has also brought in a pretty extraordinary way in the second season as well. So it will be exciting to see where the story goes in the third season of High Seas.

Season 2 of High Seas was released in its entirety on Netflix on November 22, 2019. The second season consists of eight episodes like its predecessor. The series, prior to its original release, was planned for the first two seasons. And so, it didnt seem like a surprise when the second installment came to a standstill of just six months.

Now, until the third season, Netflix has yet to appear with an announcement. Audience reviews are more or less favorable, no doubt. But a new season will depend on whether the creators need to create a multi-season story in the first place. For now, if Netflix stays to follow its regular broadcast schedule and chooses to resume the series, we can expect High Seas season 3 premiere to be sometime in late 2020.

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Alta Mar High Seas When Will Season 3 Release On Netflix? - NationEditions

As one YouTube commenter put it, the "pretty people on a boat show" is set to return as Netflix's Spanish original, 'High Seas' aka 'Alta Mar', returns in August with its third season. The plots of the first two seasons were almost completely set on the ship, Brbara de Braganza, which was making its way from Spain in Europe to Brazil in South America in the 1940s after the end of the World War II. It seemed like 'High Seas' had everything: Nazis, ghosts, stolen gold, to name a few but the new season is set to take a different direction since the ship docked in Brazil. However, it will still involve the Brbara de Braganza as an important site, albeit with a new mystery and new characters.

Read on to know more details about the Spanish show's return.

The third season of 'High Seas' / 'Alta Mar' will be available to stream on Netflix on Friday, August 7, at 12 am PST.

After disembarking in Brazil, sisters Eva and Carolina Villanueva find themselves in the middle of a new mystery in Season 3. Viewers might remember that their maid, Francisca fell off the top deck of the boat after it was revealed that Francisca killed Rosa Marin so that Carolina could marry Fernando Fabregas. The final few minutes of the Season 2 finale revealed Francisca was taken in an ambulance to the hospital but we don't know yet whether she survived. Meanwhile, the season's end also brought heartbreak for Eva after Nicolas Vzquez was reunited with his long-lost wife whom he thought was killed by the Nazis during the war.

Perhaps there's new romance lying ahead for Eva. In the promo for the new season, we are introduced to a new character who works for the British government's intelligence service. Eva teams up with this new British spy to uncover someone who is holding a "deadly virus". To stop the man from killing millions, they must find him on the Brbara de Braganza before the ship docks at its destination. While it looks like there may be some romantic developments between Eva and this new character, we are still hoping that Nicolas and her patch up their relationship.

The official synopsis for the new season is as follows: "When the Brbara de Braganza sets sail from Argentina to Mexico, a new mystery emerges again. The Brbara de Braganza sails off Buenos Aires and it will be up to the Villanueva sisters to find and stop a scientist carrying a deadly secret on board."

Ivana Baquero

Ivana Baquero plays the character of Eva Villanueva. She is best known for her roles in Pans Labyrinth and The Shannara Chronicles. In 'High Seas', she plays the role of the inquisitive Eva who steals the heart of the officer, Nicolas, played by Jon Kortajarena. She is instrumental in solving the mysteries on the ship. As such, in Season 3, she is roped in to help solve yet another mystery by a handsome British spy.

Marco Pigossi

Marco Pigossi is a Brazilian actor best known for his work on 'Edge of Desire', 'Land of the Strong', and Netflix's 'Tidelands'. In 'High Seas', he plays the new character of a British spy who ropes in Eva to help uncover a dastardly scientist's plot to release a deadly virus in Mexico.

Alejandra Onieva

Alejandra Onieva is a Spanish actress best known for her roles in 'Ella es tu padre' and 'Presunto culpable'. She plays the role of Carolina in 'High Seas', Eva's older sister who gets married on the ship in the first season.

Jon Kortajarena

Jon Kortajarena is a Spanish actor and model best known for his roles in 'Eurovision Song Contest: The Story of Fire Saga', 'A Single Man', and 'Quantico'. He plays the role of Officer Nicols Vzquez, a suave officer aboard theBrbara de Braganza, who helps Eva with her investigations.

Created by Ramn Campos and Gema R Neira and written by Ramn Campos, Gema R Neira Daniel Martn Serrano, Curro Novallas and Jos Antonio Valverde, the series was directed by Carlos Sedes who also serves as executive producer with Teresa Fernndez Valds and Ramn Campos. The team previously developed Netflix's 'Las Chicas del Cable' aka 'Cable Girls'.

'Cable Girls'

'Elite'

'Grand Hotel'

'Hache'

'Toy Boy'

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'High Seas'/'Alta Mar' Season 3: Release date, plot, cast and all you need to know about the show's return - MEAWW

High Seas is an amazing series on the streaming program Netflix in May 2019. The thriller series is from the creator by Ramon Campos and Gema R. Neera. The show has two amazing seasons that have been loved by many fans, and they all are now asking for the third season.

The thriller series will get the shows next season. The revival of the series was formally reported in November 2019, and shooting for the upcoming season started around the same time. The thriller series has been booked for August 2020.

It was reported that the creators have just begun recording for the third season. Indeed, it is said that they have additionally begun the improvement of the next season. The creation group behind the thriller series shared that they are set up to deliver 16 amazing episodes.

Source: The Justice Online.com

These will be additionally separated into two parts in eight exciting episodes each. As detailed, the third run of the series will arrive on August 7, 2020. So far it isnt affirmed will this be the last season or not, however, a great deal of amusement and drama is confirmed which the fans will be found in Season 3.

The followers of the series are trusting that the cast individuals from the previous season could be found in the next season.

The occasions of High Seas, as the name insights, occur onboard an extravagance journey transport, visiting from Spain to Brazil all through the 1940s. Two sisters are likewise part of this excursion, yet things take an insidious turn when an unavoidable passing opens up a pandora box of perilous, filthy insider facts

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Alta Mar High Seas season 3: Are We Getting It Soon Or We Have To Wait - The Digital Wise

(MENAFN - The Conversation) Wandering albatrosses have long been considered exceptional creatures. They can fly 8.5 million kilometres during their lifetimes the equivalent of flying to the Moon and back more than ten times. Their three-and-a-half-metre wing span is the same length as a small car and they can weigh as much as 24 puffins. Their body shape means they can effortlessly glide over the ocean waves, flying in some of the strongest winds on Earth. Now research led by the Centre d''tudes biologiques de Chiz in France has found that these seabirds may have promising careers in the fight against overfishing.

Accidental bycatch in fishing lines and nets when fishers unintentionally snare animals they weren''t trying to catch, like albatrosses kills hundreds of thousands of birds and mammals each year .

In the past few decades, countries have worked together to implement cross-border policies to directly address the causes of bycatch, particularly for albatrosses and petrels which have been severely affected . With onboard human observers or electronic devices tracking activity, albatross bycatch rates have fallen dramatically on monitored vessels. But what about illegal fishing boats? Military vessels and aeroplanes patrol the Southern Ocean looking for criminal fishers, but there are no observers or monitoring to ensure these boats are using methods to protect albatrosses, and without these, we know that bycatch rates are very high.

Read more: Small-scale fisheries have unintended consequences on tropical marine ecosystems

Boats that are legally fishing are generally registered and licensed, and so must adhere to laws regarding where and when they fish, and what and how much they can catch. Monitoring fishery activity around land masses is one thing, but beyond these limits, the open ocean is deemed international waters and doesn''t come under the jurisdiction of a single nation. Patrolling this enormous area by ship or air is rarely effective.

But what if there were 100 officers that could cover 10,000 kilometres each in a 30-day stretch? Meet the albatross ocean sentinels who patrol the seas for illegal fishers.

Wandering albatrosses breed on remote islands around Antarctica. These are usually only accessible by boat, and researchers must brave the '' furious 50s '' of the Southern Ocean to get there, across some of the roughest seas in the world.

So many birds were dying as a result of getting caught in fishing lines that researchers started studying the overlap between albatrosses and fishing boats. Understanding where the birds came into contact with fisheries, and which birds followed boats the most, helped explain which parts of the population were most at risk of bycatch.

Researchers mapped the distribution of boats using data transmitted from onboard monitoring systems, but these records are often only available around land and rarely in real time. Given the amount of time the birds spend in the open ocean, this meant that researchers had little idea of how many birds overlapped with fishing boats and for how long.

To address this problem, researchers developed loggers that could be attached to an albatross . The logger detects the radar of boats, collecting information on where boats are in real time. The loggers took years to perfect and I can still remember the excitement of getting the first one back that had successfully detected a boat''s radar.

The data showed how the sex, age or personality of each bird affected how likely the bird was to come into contact with fishing boats. For example, males tend to forage to the south, closer to Antarctica where fishing boats are rarer, while females forage further north, bringing them closer to the tropics and into contact with hotspots of fishing activity. Understanding this variation was the primary aim of the research, to help ecologists understand how deaths in subsections of the population can have dramatic effects on the population as a whole. But the loggers also provided bonus data that could transform fishery management and conservation in the open oceans.

Originally this work began to differentiate between fishing boats and other vessels, to test whether birds were more likely to be attracted to fishing boats. But when we combined the data collected by the loggers with a global map, we could see the location of all boats with an active Automatic Identification System (AIS). This radar allows vessels to detect each other, preventing collisions. But our study found that over 20% of boats within French waters didn''t have their AIS on, rising to 35% in international waters. Since the AIS is intended to keep vessels safe, it''s likely that these vessels operating without it in international waters were doing so to avoid detection, and so could be fishing illegally.

The albatross data had unintentionally revealed the potential extent and scale of illegal fishing in the Southern Ocean.

It''s difficult to imagine a human patrol boat being able to cover enough area to efficiently track illegal fisheries. But each wandering albatross could potentially cover the same area of ocean as a boat, and when its logger detects a fishing boat with its AIS turned off, it can relay that information to the authorities, who can alert nearby vessels to investigate.

Data collection on this scale would not only improve our ability to detect and manage illegal fisheries, but also to identify high risk areas for conservation. This would help conserve fish stocks, protect albatrosses and other seabirds, and manage the marine ecosystem as a whole. As ocean sentinels, albatrosses have a unique ability to collect the data needed for their own conservation. Their pioneering role in animal-led data collection paves the way for other species to track the human activities that risk their persistence in the wild.

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How we recruited albatrosses to patrol the high seas for illegal fishers - MENAFN.COM

Starring and written by Tom Hanks, Greyhound is a VOD war drama. For those looking to binge movies of this genre, check out these recommendations.

Amidst all the films forgoing the theater reason in favor of VOD, Greyhoundis one of the larger-scale projects. The film stars Tom Hanks, who also wrote the script forthisWorld War II drama. Hanks plays the commanding officer of a military convoy of ships crossing the Atlantic without air support.

RELATED:Top 10 Tom Hanks Movies, According To IMDb

Though it is a fairly contained film,it serves as a tense and exciting war story with non-stop threats and effective naval battle sequences. It is a worthy inclusion in the genre of war movies and there are plenty of exciting films from that genre worth checking out if you were a fan of Greyhound.

When seeing Tom Hanks as a commanding officer in World War II, it's hard not to be reminded of Saving Private Ryan. The Steven Spielberg film followed a group of soldiers who go on a dangerous mission to find one soldier who is being sent home.

Once again, Hanks proves to be a completely believable leader and military man who also brings a level of everyman to the role. The battle sequencesare brutal and intense, making Saving Private Ryanone of the most harrowing war movies ever made.

While war is dangerous for all soldiers involved, there is something extra terrifying about being atwar on the high seas, especially inside a submarine. U-571 is a WWII thriller about a group of American soldiers attempting to steal an encryption machine from a damaged German sub. When their own ship is attacked, they must survive onboard the damaged enemy boat.

RELATED:5 War Films From The 00s That Are Way Underrated (& 5 That Are Overrated)

While it plays loose with history, the movie effectively captures the claustrophobic feel of being trapped inside a sub underwater with the enemy above.

It is not just WWII films that share the same intense depiction of naval warfare. Crimson Tide is a modern take on that kind of story, which also deals with the idea of leadership in highly tense situations.

Denzel Washington plays the second-in-command onboard a nuclear sub while the world is on the verge of nuclear war. Cut off from the outside world, Washington begins to question the commands of the captain, played by Gene Hackman.

Most of theactioninGreyhound is seen within the battleship Hanks' officer commands. While the world is at war, it is fascinating to see a war movie that has such a specific focus.

Furyis another WWII film that tells a small-scale story of a tank team in the dying days of the war. Brad Pitt plays the commanding officer, a man very different from Hanks' character yet one with a similar sense of battle. It makes for a unique look at war in a way audiences have rarely seen.

A big aspect of Greyhound, and one of the most interesting aspects of the film, is its look at Hanks' character as a leader of men. This is his first big assignment in the military and he is put in charge of an entire convoy of ships.

RELATED:5 War Films From The 90s That Are Way Underrated (& 5 That Are Overrated)

This focus of the film is reminiscent of the classic war film Patton. George C. Scott plays the titular real-life American general in this glimpse at his campaign in WWII. The film is a fun exploration of his brilliant commanding style and his many flaws.

Since Greyhound deals with the early days of America's involvement in WWII, a great film to watch along with it would be Tora! Tora! Tora!, which deals with the attack on Pearl Harbor that prompted America's involvement.

The film is a spectacular epic, depicting both the American and Japanese side of the story. It makes for a thrilling look into military tactics and one of the most significant military moments in history.

Another film that expertly depicts the many threats and feelings of paranoia involved in naval warfare is the stunning German film Das Boot. The film centers around the crew of a German U-boat, who are battling the stress and anxiety of their position while beginning to question their fight in this war.

Das Bootis a harrowing film that gives rare insight into the other side of the battle. Like Greyhound, it is a film that focuses on the senselessness of war even as the soldiers fight with all their strength.

For a movie that is basically set in one location, Greyhound makes it a pulse-pounding adventure. It is also a unique war film in that much emphasis is put on the importance of survival rather than fighting.

RELATED:10 Great Anti-War Films To Watch If You Like Da 5 Bloods

Christopher Nolan's Dunkirk delivers a similar message. The film depicts the rescue mission of British troops from the beaches of France. There arefew heroic battle sequences, with the film focusing on people trying desperately to survive so they can live to fight another day.

There is a non-stop excitement to Greyhound that few movies can pull off. Asviewers follow Hanks' commander during the several days at sea, he bounces from one threat to another. As one catastrophe is averted, another arises just as fast. It makes for an edge-of-your-seat experience.

Sam Mendes' 1917 pulled off a similar feat. The World War I film follows two soldiers carrying a message across a battlefield. The one-shot look of the filmadds to the suspense and will leave audiences holding their breath until the credits roll.

Naval battles are not often depicted in Hollywood movies. Greyhound manages to make them realistic and exciting throughout the entire film. Another film that achieves this, albeit from a much earlier era, is Master and Commander.

Russell Crowe plays the commander of a British ship during the Napoleonic War as he and his crew do battle with the French on the high seas. Crowe makes for a stirring lead and the battle sequences are spectacular.

NEXT:5 Best & 5 Worst World War II Movies, According To Rotten Tomatoes

Next 10 Of The Best Sci-Fi/Fantasy Films Made In The 2000s, Ranked By Rotten Tomatoes

A writer and film fan. I always enjoy keeping up with the latest films in theaters as well as discovering some hidden gems I may have overlooked. Glad to be a part of Screen Rant's positive and fun community and have the opportunity to share my thoughts with you.

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10 Movies To Watch If You Liked Greyhound | ScreenRant - Screen Rant

The oceans throughout history provided seemingly inexhaustible fish for people brave and skillful enough to exploit them. Whenever fish catches declined, fishers would sail farther and farther from home to meet their needs.1 Nowadays the entire global ocean is accessible. Large factory ships and the magic of refrigeration have allowed fishers to venture out for months or years, and more efficient and diverse ways of fishing have increased catches with little care or understanding about the incremental reduction of fish stocks.2 Before the middle of the twentieth century, no one but a few scientists worried about how long the bounty could last, until suddenly, everything began to collapse. Mini wars over fishing rights between Iceland and the United Kingdom in the 1960s and 1970s, along with increasingly protective measures by other nations, led to the unilateral establishment of exclusive economic zones (EEZs) to keep foreign fishers away, the legitimacy of which were formally recognized in 1982 under the auspices of the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea. Yet even still, as in Newfoundland, fisheries kept collapsing, with tragic consequences for entire communities.

The great majority of fisheries data come from coastal ecosystems including estuaries, marsh and mangrove wetlands, seagrass meadows, kelp forests, and coral reefs. In spite of great differences in their inhabitants, the dominant predators in each of these environments were historically large animals, including some combination of killer whales, sharks, seals, crocodiles, predatory fishes like tunas and sharks, and seabirds.3 Nowadays, however, most of these animals are so severely depleted as to be ecologically extinct. Humans have taken their place as the dominant predators at almost all trophic levels above the zooplankton.4 There is even a major fishery for krill in Antarctica, which are critically important for the survival of whales, without the necessary ecological data for an adequate stock assessment to know what is sustainable.5

Biomass of groundfish and sharks has been diminished by an order of magnitude in the northwest Atlantic.6 Similar depredations have affected coral reefs, kelp forests, estuaries and coastal seas, and the high seas.7 Many fisheries biologists originally claimed that the depletions of fish stocks were overstated, but a detailed assessment by the US National Research Council strongly supported the original claims.8 It is now generally accepted that two-thirds of global fisheries are overfished and getting worse, while many of the remaining, better-managed fisheries are not yet sufficiently recovered to be economically viable.9

Global fish catches are declining in spite of increased capacity supported by misguided government subsidies that only accentuate the problem.10 The greatest losses are for large-scale industrial fisheries, whereas artisanal catches appear to be more sustainable. Risks of biological extinction are also increasing for large animals.11 Caribbean Monk seals have already been lost, and their Hawaiian and Mediterranean counterparts are gravely threatened.12 Killer whales are rapidly diminishing globally, especially those species that depend on highly specific overfished prey like salmon.13 Caribbean sea turtles have declined in abundance 100-fold, and Caribbean crocodiles are threatened to endangered throughout most of their range.14 Sharks are globally threatened with losses of numerous species exceeding 90% or more.15

The oceans have long been the terminal point for our garbage, excrement, and chemicals. Coastal pollution most obviously began in the stench of estuaries like New York Harbor, which by the nineteenth century had become serious hazards to human health.16 Soon afterwards, entire semi-enclosed seas like the Baltic and Adriatic seas, Chesapeake Bay, and embayments of the Mississippi Delta were so polluted by excess nutrients and organic matter that oxygen levels declined, and fish kills were commonplace.17 More recently, the industrial pollution of toxic chemicals and greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels have extended to the farthest reaches of the oceans and the atmosphere, poisoning tuna and swordfish with mercury and littering the oceans with plastic.18

There are currently more than 500 coastal hypoxic dead zones worldwide that are largely due to massive increases in nutrient runoff from intensive agriculture made possible by cheap nitrogen fertilizer manufactured from petroleum.19 Excess nitrogen runoff fuels population explosions of phytoplankton far beyond the capacity of zooplankton and other suspension feeders to consume them. As a result, the excess phytoplankton die and sink to the seafloor where they are metabolized by microbes, a process that consumes most or all of the oxygen in bottom waters. Animals including fisheries species that cannot swim away die from asphyxia, except for a very few species that can survive in extremely low oxygen conditions.

The structural integrity of coastal marine habitats, from the tropics to the temperate zone, is dependent on the abundance of a small number of structurally dominant species of mangroves, saltmarshes, seagrasses, kelps, and reef corals that stabilize sediments and provide critical shoreline protection from storms.20 They are also important sites of carbon deposition and sequestration, and are important nursery habitats for fisheries.21 Coastal development and climate change effectively kills the environment, reducing biological structural stability and complexity. Global losses have been alarming, reaching 50% for mangroves and 30% for seagrasses.22 Global declines in living coral cover on reefs is also highly variable but commonly exceeds 50% throughout the Caribbean and Indo-Pacific.23

Other increasingly widespread forms of anthropogenic habitat change are more immediately destructive in reducing habitat complexity and biodiversity.24 The most damaging include dynamite fishing on coral reefs to harvest the fish that float to the surface; seabed trawling for shrimp, scallops, and groundfish that transforms biodiverse underwater forests into depauperate level bottoms of mud; and deep seafloor mining that, if it is allowed to proceed, will inevitably destroy seafloor ecosystems for decades and possibly centuries.25 Container ship traffic is also increasing almost exponentially and carries the double risk of fatal collisions with endangered whales and sound pollution that is dangerous for all cetaceans.26 Seismic oil and gas exploration causes even more severe sound pollution that can cause mass mortalities of whales and dolphins.27

Introductions of exotic species are also increasing due to expanding ship traffic, which discharge ever-increasing volumes of ballast water that contain larval stages of invertebrates, fishes, plankton, and pathogens.28 While the data are mostly circumstantial, the first mass mortality of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum occurred next to the Caribbean entrance of the Panama Canal, and the first widespread outbreaks of coral diseases in the Caribbean were recorded from nearby Colombia and adjacent Netherlands Antilles.29 Coral diseases are exacerbated by global warming, but these first Caribbean disease outbreaks occurred two decades before the first reports of coral bleaching due to extreme warming events.30 Introductions also occur due to deliberate or accidental release from aquaria, as with the Indo-Pacific lionfish that has devasted native fish populations of the Caribbean.31

Farmed salmon bones preserved in a laboratory in collaboration with palaeontologists at the University of Bergen, Norway. Michelle-Marie Letelier,Outline for The Bonding (Still #3), 2017. 16mm film transferred to HD. Image courtesy of the artist.

Impacts of climate change due to the burning of fossil fuels are also both direct and indirect, including rising average temperatures, extreme heating events, declining oxygen, ocean acidification, disease outbreaks, and intensification of extreme storms.32 Sea surface temperatures are rising globally, but disproportionately, with the greatest increases in polar seas and semi-enclosed basins in the temperate zones, such as the Gulf of Maine. The latitudinal limits of myriad species are rapidly increasing in response, as in the case of the Humboldt squid, whose northern limit shifted from southern California to the Gulf of Alaska in just a few decades due to a combination of climate change and overfishing that reduced the abundance of predators.33 Most species range shifts are more gradual but pervasive, with great implications for fisheries.34 For example, optimal conditions for Atlantic and Barents Sea cod are moving northward out of traditional fishing grounds and into different international jurisdictions, further exacerbating the consequences of historical overfishing.35 Tropical reef corals are also migrating towards higher latitudes, most strikingly along the southwest coast of Australia, where kelp forests are dying off and being replaced by subtropical species including reef corals.36

As oceans continue to warm, species characteristic of colder polar conditions have nowhere else to migrate and are at risk of extinction. Arctic species and entire ecosystems are increasingly threated by the loss of summer sea ice.37 Populations of polar bears, which historically fed on seals captured at breathing holes, are plummeting, and starving bears are showing up around human settlements where they forage on garbage and potentially whatever else.38 Other effects on polar food webs are still poorly understood, but the collapse of Antarctic krill, for example, would have grave impacts on the baleen whales that feed upon them.39

Global warming is also causing increases in the magnitude and frequency of extreme heating events wherein sea surface temperatures may rise 2 to 3C above normal maxima in just a few months.40 Consequences for reef corals can be catastrophic.41 Healthy reef corals exist in symbiosis with the dinoflagellates within their tissues that are critical to coral nutrition and calcification.42 Extreme heat breaks down this symbiosis, whereby corals evict the symbiont (which leaves them ghostly white, hence bleached). This is commonly fatal to the corals unless symbiosis is reestablished within a matter of weeks. Mass bleaching events are increasingly frequent and severe, raising questions about the very survival of coral reefs. The most recent extreme example was in 20152016 when most corals along the northern Great Barrier Reef bleached and died, and similar mass bleaching and mortality occurred across the Pacific.43 Another example is the enormous blob of hot water that appeared in the northeast Pacific in 2014 that was associated with collapses in species abundance and outbreaks of diseases.44

Climate change also sets off a cascading series of indirect effects that magnify its impact. The impact of coral diseases has greatly increased, especially in connection with mass bleaching events.45 Outbreaks of coral diseases are especially impactful on polluted reefs and those where overfishing has resulted in population explosions of fleshy algae, which have been shown experimentally to increase the vulnerability of corals to disease.46 In contrast, disease outbreaks are comparatively rare on unpolluted reefs in marine protected areas with abundant grazing fishes. Lobsters along the northeast coast of North America are also more vulnerable to shell wasting disease as waters warm, effectively wiping out the fishery in Long Island Sound.47

Oxygen concentrations are declining in the open ocean because warming surface waters makes them lighter, which in turn slows down the vertical mixing of the oceans; a runaway process that decreases the rate of oxygen transport to the deep sea and upwelling of nutrients to the sea surface.48 The process is especially striking in the equatorial Pacific, and in the Arctic ocean where the cover of summer sea ice is rapidly decreasing.49 Sea ice is highly reflective, dispersing heat back into the atmosphere, whereas seawater absorbs heat and sets up a positive feedback that is effectively irreversible. Reduced nutrient upwelling and declining oxygen are strongly associated with decreases in open ocean productivity, which is the basis for high seas fisheries.50

The ocean is also becoming more acidic. Solution in seawater of increasing atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide has resulted in a global reduction in ocean pH of 0.1 units over the past century.51 The biologic consequences of acidification are still poorly understood and controversial, but could affect the reproduction, physiology, growth, and development of a wide variety of plants and animals. The most obvious impacts are on organisms that form their skeletons of calcium carbonate, which is more easily dissolved under more acidic conditions. This is already affecting shellfish aquaculture industries in the state of Washington, where pH has been steadily declining.52 Aquaculturists have been forced to raise vulnerable juvenile clams and oysters under less acidic conditions in aquaria on land before placing them in the ocean.53 Reef corals are also vulnerable to increasing acidity. Corals grown under present-day more acidic conditions grew 15% more slowly than corals where pH was maintained at historically less acidic conditions.54

Bird watchers were pioneers in the early rise of the conservation movement, with organizations such as the Audubon Society fighting to stop the slaughter of herons and egrets for womens hats.55 Similarly, its not just important for tourism that increasing numbers of people pay good money to see whales up close in the wild and increasingly to SCUBA dive with sharks.56 Besides the thrill of witnessing their power and grace, whale and shark watchers learn about the lives and behavior of these animals and how they fit into ocean ecosystems which, in turn, leads to increased support for their protection.

Horror at the slaughter of whales was a major factor in the establishment of the International Whaling Commission in 1946 which, despite persistent opposition from a few countries, has resulted in dramatic recoveries of most whale species.57 In addition to the ethical issues inherent in the mass slaughter of such animals, we now know that the great whales were once (and increasingly are now again) vitally important ecosystem engineers, as predators of massive amounts of fish and invertebrates, prey for other large predators, highly mobile reservoirs of carbon and nutrients, and as carcasses, sources of energy and habitat in the deep sea.58

Similar public concerns about the loss of other marine mammals were a driving factor in the enactment of the United States Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibits the killing, harm, harassment, or collection of any marine mammal in US territorial waters or by US citizens anywhere else. It also forbids the importation of any marine mammal products or parts. Populations of most marine mammals have varyingly recovered, although their comparative success is strongly associated with their life histories, habitat requirements, and geographic range.59 The depletion of essential forage fish due to overfishing also inhibits their recovery.60 One obvious manifestation of success is the greatly increased abundance of seals along the east and west coasts of the US, where their activities and real or perceived impacts on fisheries are not always welcome. Their rebound has also led to increases in great white sharks near shore, restoring a degree of balance to marine food webs while generating new questions about perceived risks to humans and potential impacts on endangered species.61

Increased tourist revenues have also led to the banning of shark fishing on coral reefs by entire nations because the sharks are vastly more lucrative alive than dead. Economic analysis for the government of Palau demonstrated that diver tourism provides 39% of the countrys total GDP, and that 21% of divers come principally to dive with sharks. The approximately 100 sharks in prime shark dive sites are each worth about US$180,000 per year in tourist revenue, or US$1.9 million during their lifetimes, versus about $110 for their fins and meat.62 Shark diving is a burgeoning global industry that is not without its environmental concerns, although if it is done responsibly, the net conservation value appears to be generally positive.63

New studies of the remarkable behavior and migrations of ocean species are also increasing public support for increased protections.64 The electronic tagging of thousands of individuals of different species of Pacific whales, seabirds, seaturtles, tunas and other large fish, and sharks has revealed striking transoceanic migrations of some species versus others that move much smaller distances.65 Bluefin tuna, for example, move back and forth across the Atlantic and Pacific, hanging out for up to a year or more in the same general location before moving on.66 In contrast, eastern Pacific great white sharks move back and forth between the California coast where they feed on burgeoning seal populations and an area of deep ocean halfway between Baja California and Hawaii dubbed the White Shark Caf, where they feed on vertically migrating fishes and invertebrates.67 Over 200 of these sharks have been tagged and followed for up to twenty years.68

Wild salmon eggs at Arna Sport Fishermens Association, Norway. Michelle-Marie Letelier,Outline for The Bonding (Still #5), 2017. 16mm film transferred to HD. Image courtesy of the artist.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are an increasingly popular and effective conservation strategy for biodiversity and habitat protection when effectively financed, administered, and enforced.69 Unprotected paper parks, however, can do more harm than good by lulling people into thinking everything is fine when it is not.70 MPAs are also controversial from the perspective of fisheries management, with some arguing that MPAs are the most effective tool available versus those who believe that other management tools such as catch shares and gear restrictions are more effective in most cases than simple area closures.71

Cabo Pulmo in the southern Sea of Cortez is one of the most spectacular success stories of an effectively enforced MPA.72 Although it was severely overfished at the time, Cabo Pulmo was designated as a Mexican marine national park in 1995 on the basis of its coral populations. Protections did not become effective until local villagers self-organized to enforce the entire park as a no-take area in the late 1990s. Fish biomass was less than one metric ton per hectare in 1999, comparable to other unprotected areas or paper parks throughout the Gulf of California. Subsequent to the villagers protection, biomass increased over the following ten protected years to about 4.5 metric tons, while all other areas failed to increase. Biomass and diversity have fluctuated since 2009, in large part due to the community evolving towards a more natural composition that includes greater populations of schooling fishes as well as more abundant corals. The greatest potential threat to Cabo Pulmo is its notorious success, which attracts burgeoning numbers of tourists and development.

A network of nine well enforced no-take MPAs and two partial-take MPAs was established around four of the northern Channel Islands off the coast of California in 2003 and revisited ten years later.73 The biomass of preferred fisheries species approximately doubled within MPAs at three of the four islands, but non-targeted species showed little response. The biomass of targeted species outside the reserves also increased by about one quarter, possibly because of a spillover effect. Similar results were obtained the Cowcod Conservation Areas established in the southern Channel Islands in 2001, where abundances of six of eight targeted species and four of seven non-targeted rockfish species increased regionally from 1998 to 2013.74 Rising temperatures during the study are a complicating factor. Nevertheless, 75% of targeted species but none of the non-targeted species increased inside compared to outside of the MPAs while controlling for environmental factors.

The establishment of very large marine protected areas within exclusive economic zones has increased the area of ocean within MPAs to only 3.5%, about half of which are under strong protection.75 Meanwhile, most ocean ecosystems are hemorrhaging, as major fishing fleets continue to expand their global operations.76 This may be changing, however, as the international community finally begins to seriously consider international governance of the high seas defined as areas beyond national jurisdictions. The first major achievement in this was the agreement to establish the worlds largest marine protected area by the twenty-five-national-member Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources.77 The agreement protects all wildlife and bans fishing for overfished krill and Patagonian and Antarctic Toothfish in 600,000 square miles in the Ross Sea for thirty-five years. Much more will have to be done, however, to preserve populations around Antarctica where these species are threatened by overfishing and rapid climate change and have ripple effects on the marine mammals and penguins that depend upon them.

The scientific case for closing the high seas to fisheries is strong. Nearly 98% of global seafood production comes from the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of individual nations and aquaculture. What does come from the high seas is mostly luxury species such as tuna and billfishes, yet their commercial value is even less.78 Moreover, most high seas fisheries are heavily dependent on government subsidies by a small number of wealthy countries that can afford the enormous costs.79 Closure of the high seas to fishing would therefore have great economic and social benefits in addition to environmental protections of fish stocks and the long-distance migration routes of marine megafauna.80 Most compellingly, the overwhelming majority of high seas fishery species are also major components of fisheries within national EEZs, which means that closure of the high seas to fishing would produce a vast MPA where commercially important species could prosper, reproduce, and spill over into EEZs whose potential catches would increase.81 Further advantages would include simplification of policing the rampant problem of pirate fishing and transfers at sea.82

While commonly overshadowed by bad news, concerted actions to reduce pollution and protect keystone species have resulted in many recoveries of marine populations and ecosystems.83 The installation of modern sewage systems and the reduction in nutrient runoff have varyingly improved water quality, reduced excess planktonic productivity and toxic algal blooms, and restored seagrass meadows, salt marshes, and fisheries in estuaries around the world.84 These efforts demonstrate that even greater progress could be achieved in stabilizing coastal ecosystems if adequate measures are taken to eliminate or greatly reduce pollutant runoff, and most importantly agricultural nutrients.85 Serious efforts to do so have not yet materialized, however, because farmers dont have to pay for what they pollute. There is also a problem of scale in semi-enclosed seas like the Baltic because nutrient buildups in sediments are already so great that simply reducing nutrient runoff may not suffice.

Banning the use of fish pots around Bermuda in 1990, where fish populations had collapsed due to overfishing, resulted in rapid rebounding of fish populations dominated by schools of large parrotfish.86 Since then, abundances have remained high except for the large predatory fish that remain overfished. Coral populations also have steadily increased due to the control of algal populations by the abundant parrotfish. Caribbean coral reefs are generally extremely overfished, but the few places where both fishing and pollution are effectively controlled uniquely support high coral abundance.

Detail of farmed salmon scales, Norway. Michelle-Marie Letelier,Outline for The Bonding (Still #2), 2017. 16mm film transferred to HD. Image courtesy of the artist.

Despite important accomplishments, comprehensive policies are lacking to address the unsustainability of the modern economy that is driving ecosystem collapses and threatening human wellbeing.87 Nature is a complex system, and much of that system as we knew it is irreversibly breaking down.88 Environmental perturbations in one place almost inevitably have repercussions down the line, be it agricultural pollution in the US cornbelt causing the dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico or the effects of runoff and overfishing on outbreaks of disease affecting reef corals. Huge energy and investment in projects to restore populations of corals in Florida and on the Great Barrier Reef are making much progress in terms of the technical details of raising, breeding, and growing corals, but they are also absurdly expensive and small scale, not to mention that putting the corals back into the same nutrient polluted environments and expecting them to somehow survive is folly. More fundamentally, they are bandaids to address the symptoms of ocean decline rather than addressing the fundamental root causes of the ocean crisis: global warming, overfishing, and land-based pollution.89

The most encouraging development towards adapting to and managing these realities is that large scale efforts to decarbonize the global economy are beginning to gain traction despite political intransigence, not least because, in addition to its obvious advantages for human health and the environment, green energy is financially a better option than heavily subsidized fossil fuels.90 California, the fifth largest global economy, is committed to be carbon neutral by 2045 and is well on track, and electric cars are becoming a more practical alternative to gasoline and diesel. The outstanding question is how rapidly opposition can be overcome to speed things up and take actions on the appropriate scales.

This paper is adapted from a presentation at the University of Utah submitted to Island Press. The author is grateful to Jennifer Jacquet for her helpful review of the manuscript.

Oceans in Transformation is a collaboration between TBA21Academy and e-flux Architecture within the context of the eponymous exhibition at Ocean Space in Venice by Territorial Agency and its manifestation on Ocean Archive.

Jeremy Jackson is Senior Scientist Emeritus at the Smithsonian Institution and Professor of Oceanography Emeritus at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.

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Revaluing the Oceans - Architecture - e-flux - E-Flux

China appears to be accelerating its campaign to control the South China Sea and the Senkaku Islands in the East China Sea. Beijing does itself no favours with the highly ambiguous nature of its claims in the region. Its internationally condemned nine-dash line sometimes appears to be delineating its claims to the island features within it. More ominously, Beijing sometimes insinuates the line as a maritime delineation, carving out sovereign control of the sea itself as well as the airspace above it.

Chinas ongoing militarisation of many artificial features in disputed waters is well known. A less well known, but highly consequential implication of this militarisation is the vastly increased capacity it gives China to project power not only to control the reefs and rocks of the South China Sea, but, in the future, to assert control over the high seas and airspace above it. Beijing is vocal about its opposition to innocent passage and other military activities within its 200-nautical mile exclusive economic zones.

Beijing has tried hard to keep its dispute resolution efforts focused on bilateral negotiations between itself and the various claimants, effectively fracturing a united response by ASEAN. Pushback in the region is only now beginning. Chinas sweeping claims also impact many countries that lie far beyond the shores of the South China Sea. The US, Japan, Australia, India and many others around the world have critical interests in using the sea directly for economic, scientific and military purposes. More urgently, maintaining an open and free system of movement through the high seasand in the future, in outer spaceis of critical importance.

The decisive rejection of Chinas claims in the South China Sea by an arbitral tribunal under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea in 2016 only accelerated Beijings continued bad-faith efforts to construct features, militarise them, and extend administrative control over others presence and activities to the furthest reaches of the nine-dash line. In fact, the ruling decisively rejects both Chinas claims to many rocks and maritime features and the idea that these islands can generate territorial seas and exclusive economic zones.

This studied strategic ambiguity by China (on display on other fronts as well) should encourage the international community to confront an alternative and altogether darker explanation for Beijings behaviourthat it is building forces and positions in the region so that over the long term it can assert sovereign authority over the South China Sea.

This interpretation of Chinas actions, though difficult to accept, should be considered as a possibility in military and strategic planning efforts around the world with an eye towards avoiding this worst-case outcome. It is important to remember that the scope and scale of Chinas claims are unprecedented in international law and have no real analogue anywhere else on earth. An unwillingness to confront this scenario risks ceding Beijing permanent control over economic and military activities over a large and critical section of the worlds oceansand beyond.

The South China Sea is a third larger than the Mediterranean Sea and more than twice as large as the Gulf of Mexico. Acknowledging Chinas sweeping claims to sovereignty over this massive space would increase the possibility of a future international environment in which ever larger portions of the global commons are cut off and controlled by individual nations.

Either the international community believes in maintaining a free and open global commons and protects international law or it doesnt. If it doesnt, then Chinas potential annexation of this vast space will guarantee similar claims over the worlds oceans. To foreclose on this future will require an active and aggressive response by the widest grouping of states possible. Regardless of how individual claims over the various land features in the South China Sea are resolved, the entire globe has a stake in free and open access to the region.

For this reason, the US, along with all major allies and partners, should explicitly link Chinas own access to the global commons with its behaviour in the South China Sea. Washingtons announcement of its rejection of Beijings maritime claims, underscored by the US Navy dual aircraft carrier strike group exercises in the region, is a good beginning. However, operations in the South China Sea play to Chinas strengths. The US and the widest range of allies and partners in the international community should begin to articulate and apply escalating administrative and technical restrictions globally on Chinese shipping, air travel and transport in and through exclusive economic zones around the world by participating countries.

Restrictions on economic and military transit and scientific exploration should be pre-planned and scalable so that they are similar to Chinese moves in the South China Sea. These allied grey zone competitive activities could be problematic for Beijing; they would drastically increase the cost and complication of accessing the Indo-Pacific region and beyond. For example, contiguous US, Japanese and Philippine zones restrict direct Chinese access to the Western Pacific. This possibility should be communicated to Beijing should it attempt to assert sovereign control in the South China Sea through force.

Securing the highest degree of freedom and access throughout the global commons should be the ultimate goal of this international effort. Focused and reciprocal restrictions on China throughout the exclusive economic zones of the world should be coupled with strong assurances that they remain open for participating nations. Moreover, these restrictions on China should be easily and quickly reversible. When Beijing comes to its senses on the use of the South China Sea, its access to the global maritime commons should be both restored and encouraged.

Although this strategic approach to countering Beijings most aggressive designs in the South China Sea appears to be rather drastic, like-minded nations around the world should be prepared to deliver a decisive shock to Beijings calculations about any gains it may achieve by limiting access to the South China Sea and rejecting the free use of the global commons more generally. Even hinting that a global response on this scale is possible should concentrate minds in Beijing on their strong and growing dependence on the global commons to reach their much vaunted centenary goals. Together, allied nations should encourage China to support an open and free global commons today in the South China Sea.

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How to stop China completing its takeover of the South China Sea - The Strategist

Overfishing is one of the greatest threatsto ocean health, yet for decades many governments have paid subsidies to their fishing fleets, helping them fish beyond levels that are biologically sustainable. Its time to end these harmful subsidies, some of which even support illegal fishing activities. Now, new case studies show that World Trade Organization (WTO) measures to end those harmful payments could help local fishers while increasing global catch.

Not all fisheries subsidies are harmful. Some, for example, might help artisanal fishers survive a lean season, and those payments should be maintained. But studies show that governments are spending $22.2 billion per year on payments that encourage overfishing. These subsidies, paid to help offset the costs of vessel fuel, upgrades, port renovations, and other expenses, enable primarily industrial fleets to fish farther from shore and longer than they otherwise would. A June 2018 study found that without government subsidies, as much as 54% of the present high-seas fishing grounds would be unprofitable.

Fortunately, the global community has recognized this problem and the need to address it: The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 Target 6, which U.N. member governments agreed to in 2015, tasks the WTO with crafting an agreement to end harmful fisheries subsidies. WTO members were on track to finalize this deal at a June meeting but have postponed that conference due to COVID-19.

The new case studies provide the first practical evidence of how curbing subsidy-driven overfishing would improve fishery sustainability and benefit local fishers, their families, and their communities.

To produce the studies, the International Institute for Sustainable Development commissioned researchers to examine fish stock exploitation levels, governance regimes, revenue from landings, income from subsidies, and operating costs in three fisheries: shrimp in Latin America, sardinella in West Africa, and southern longline tuna in the Pacific. The researchers were then asked to examine the economic impacts of possible WTO disciplines, and options for managing these impacts.

Broadly, the studies found that reforming harmful fisheries subsidies could lead to higher yields for local fishers, which in turn could help provide more stable jobs, raise fishers incomes, reduce poverty, and improve food security in local communities.

Incomplete or inadequate reporting often allows governments to obscure the nature of their subsidy programs, creating challenges in evaluating their true impacts. But if governments commit to increased transparency and more complete notifications to the WTO of their subsidy programs, analysts and observers will gain a far better understanding of the potential effects of any new policy.

Here are some of the specific findings from the case studies.

In the Latin American shrimp fisheries:

Key takeaway: WTO disciplines could help artisanal fisheries compete with industrial vessels that may not be profitable without subsidies. Fuel and vessel maintenance subsidies represented 20% to 50% of income for industrial vessels in Mexico and Nicaragua, for example.

In the West African sardinella fishery:

Key takeaway: WTO disciplines could limit the harmful subsidies contributing to the overcapacity and overfishing of sardinella for both sectors. These subsidies cover the costs of fuel, certain capital costs, and access to other countries waters, as well as contribute to allowing illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, mostly by foreign vessels. Previous studies have estimated that West African fishers are losing up to $2.3 billion in revenue each year due to IUU fishing in the region.

In the western and central Pacific longline tuna fishery:

Key takeaway: Though the impact of WTO disciplines would likely vary in different parts of the fishery, ending subsidies that contribute to overfishing and overcapacity could reduce the overall fishing effort and allow for Pacific island countries to better develop their domestic fishing industries.

WTO members still have a chance to reach a trade deal that could realize unprecedented benefits for the ocean. While new WTO measures might require transition periods to help vulnerable fishers mitigate potential short-term impacts of subsidy removal, meaningful subsidy prohibitions, coupled with improved fisheries management at the national level, could improve economic and environmental conditions in fisheries around the world.

The new case studies show that subsidy reform would improve ocean health and help fishing fleets operate sustainably far into the future.

Isabel Jarrettis a manager and Reyna Gilbert is a senior associate with The Pew Charitable Trusts project to reduce harmful fisheries subsidies.

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Fisheries Subsidies Reform Could Reduce Overfishing and Illegal Fishing, Case Studies Find - The Pew Charitable Trusts