Category Archives: Evolution

DUBLIN--(BUSINESS WIRE)--The "Global Top 4 Commercial Aircraft Turbofan Engine Manufacturers - Decennial Strategy Dossier - The Decade from 2010 to 2019 - Strategy Focus, Evolution, Progression & the Path Ahead to the 2020s - Pratt & Whitney, Rolls Royce, GE Aviation, Safran" company profile has been added to ResearchAndMarkets.com's offering.

This Decennial Strategy Dossier, published at the turn of the decade, reviews the strategy evolution & progression for the Global Top 4 Commercial Aircraft Turbofan Engine Manufacturers through one of the most profitable decades for Commercial Aviation with the market continuing with its unbroken supercycle.

The rally has been driven by strong tailwinds emanating from a multitude of favorable, demand side factors led by robust growth in passenger air traffic, decent global macroeconomic growth and a favorable crude oil price environment prevailing through most of the decade which has bolstered airlines profitability as well as driven fleet expansion led by the LCC segment.

Supply side factors, led by the development & introduction of new & re-engined aircrafts by the industry OEMs, incorporating new, high bypass turbofan engines have stimulated replacement demand with technological evolution by the industry, focused on performance, safety, comfort and optimized operating economics, further catalyzing fleet replacement activity across airlines groups globally.

The report analyzes and reviews the strategic path taken by the engine manufacturers through the decade ending in 2019 led by the development & introduction of next generation aviation turbofan engines, featuring a high bypass ratio and extensive usage of technological innovations from the competing engine powerhouses, which entered service over the recent years, and are proving their mettle in grueling, active duty service.

However, going forward, managing things in a very difficult & challenging market environment for commercial aviation post the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic, with most key global economies projected to go into recession for 2020, will be critical for the industry over near term.

This decennial review, thus, takes a macro view of the strategic developments and reviews the strategy pursuits & execution by these engine manufacturers over the 2010-2019 period and assesses their strategic significance as well as business impact & outcome for the companies at the turn of the decade with a look at the road ahead.

Report Excerpt

The trend towards next generation, high bypass ratio turbofan engines has been led by Pratt & Whitney which has re-entered the Global Commercial Aircraft propulsion market after a long gap with the development of the PW1000G Geared Turbofan Engines Family for the twenty fist century commercial aviation market backed by a massive $10 billion investment. GE's story can't be scripted without mentioning the success of CFM International, its JV with Safran, which has literally dominated the global medium aircraft propulsion market for decades now with its iconic CFM56 engine program and the latest LEAP engine family, which made a splendid debut around the middle of the decade and faces a direct head off with the Pratt & Whitney's PW1000G GTF engine family in the narrow body market.

2020 will be another key year for GE as GE's 9X engine, the largest jet engine in the history ever, will power the Boeing's 777X for its test flight phase ultimately paving the way for certification and entry into service scheduled for 2021 now. GE Vs. Rolls Royce has been the Mother of all Engine battles in the global wide body aircraft market for some time now. Rolls Royce has made a decent comeback in the global wide body aircraft market through the decade with the winning of two key wide body aircraft programs as the sole source engine supplier over the recent years, namely, the A350XWB & the A330neo, which are going to be the key pivots for Rolls in its perennial battle against arch rival GE for market shares.

Key Topics Covered

Section - 1

Business Structure & Snapshot - Current

a) Founded

b) Headquartered

c) Business Segments

d) Employees

e) Product Portfolio - Major Product Platforms, Programs and Key Competitors

f) Market Capitalization/Ownership Structure

g) Key Executives

h) Shareholding/Ownership Pattern & Structure

Section - 2

Financial Performance Analysis - Charts & Analysis: Evolution from 2010 through 2019

1. Revenue Base & Growth Trend

2. Revenues Split by Key Segments

3. Revenues Split by Key Geographic Markets & Regions

4. Gross Earnings & Margin Trend

5. Operating Earnings & Operating Margin Trend

6. Return on Sales Trend

7. Profitability Growth Trend

8. Cash Flow from Operations

9. R&D Expenditure Trend

10. CAPEX Trend

11. Order Intake & Aircraft Deliveries Trend

12. Order Backlog Position

Section - 3

Strategy Focus, Evolution & Progression through the Decade - Airbus Vs. Boeing over the 2010-2019 Period

Section - 4

Key Strategies, Initiatives & Developments - 2010-2019 - Airbus Vs. Boeing

Section - 5

Global Commrcial Aircraft Market - Force Field Analysis - Analysis of Driving & Restraining Forces and their Overall Dynamics

Section - 6

Key Trends

Section - 7

Key Issues, Challenges & Risk Factors

Section - 8

Business Outlook for Airbus and Boeing - 2020 and Near Term

Section - 9

The Path Ahead

Strategic Market Outlook through 2038

For more information about this company profile visit https://www.researchandmarkets.com/r/pxse41

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Top 4 Commercial Aircraft Turbofan Engine Manufacturers: Decennial Strategy Dossier 2010-2019 - Strategy Focus, Evolution, Progression & the Path...

Updated: May 25, 2018:

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The Evolution of Provider Relief Funds: Current Status of Rules for Keeping the Funds - JD Supra

Though nature grants vast periods of time for the work of natural selection, she does not grant an indefinite period; for as all organic beings are striving to seize on each place in the economy of nature, if any one species does not become modified and improved in a corresponding degree with its competitors, it will soon be exterminated. P. 79

Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species.

In its purest form, Kyle Shanahans offense is extinct.

Shanahan doesnt use it anymore. He has evolved past the basic structure of the system he inherited from his father, Mike Shanahan.

The basic structure was a run-first attack that features zone blocking -- picture five offensive linemen running in the same direction, like a conga line. The scheme was simple, pared down, and it had a philosophy: Use the same few run plays over and over and master them.

This scheme worked for Mike Shanahan -- he won two Super Bowls as head coach of the Broncos. It worked for Kyle Shanahan when he was an offensive coordinator in Houston, Washington and Atlanta. And it worked for Sean McVay his first two seasons as the Rams head coach.

In 2018, McVays version of the Shanahans basic zone-blocking scheme propelled the Rams to the Super Bowl. They rushed for 2,231 that season -- third most in the NFL. Didnt matter who played running back -- Todd Gurley or C.J. Anderson -- opponents couldnt stop the Rams running game. Until the Super Bowl, when Patriots head coach Bill Belichick showed the entire league how to shut it down.

Defenses always catch up eventually. They evolve, too.

The league studied what Belichick did to the Rams, and essentially shut down the zone-blocking scheme in 2019. It didnt work for any team that featured it. Ask the Rams. Their running game ranked 26th, and they missed the playoffs. McVay couldnt evolve, or didnt see the need to. Perhaps hes not a Darwinist. Now the Rams are the Dodo birds of the NFL.

Meanwhile, Shanahan stayed one step ahead of his competitors.

Maybe Shanahan saw what Belichick did to the Rams in the Super Bowl and knew it was time to adapt. Or maybe Shanahan evolved simply to suit his personnel. Thats what good coaches do.

His quarterback, Jimmy Garoppolo, was coming off a torn ACL and hadnt played in a year. And his wide receivers werent helping him. During training camp, the starting receivers were Dante Pettis and Marquise Goodwin, and both struggled big time. The 49ers eventually benched them.

Shanahan must have known he needed to lean on his running game more than ever. And he couldnt call inside zone and outside zone repeatedly unless he wanted to suffer the Rams fate. Shanahan needed more volume in his scheme.

So he and his run-game coordinator, Mike McDaniel, developed the most diverse rushing attack in the NFC. Suddenly, the 49ers used Powers, Counters, Traps, Whams, Sweeps -- all kinds of old-school runs the 49ers ran in the 1980s when Bill Walsh was the coach. Plus, the 49ers used obscure, trick runs it seemed Shanahan stole from the Naval Academy, plus his fathers zone-blocking runs. The playbook contained every type of run imaginable, with blockers crisscrossing in the backfield. The offense looked like an elaborate game of Three Card Monty. Call it 11 Card Monty.

Its like the 49ers had gunpowder while the rest of the NFC merely had bows and arrows.

But because things constantly evolve -- ask Old Charlie Darwin -- that era is already over.

Defenses have spent the offseason studying Shanahans run game, just like they spent the previous offseason studying McVays. Meaning defenses will make it their business to slow down Shanahans cutting-edge ground attack.

How will Shanahan stay one step ahead in 2020? What is the next stage in the evolution of his offense?

Simple.

Any defense that sells out to stop the run leaves itself vulnerable to deep play-action passes. Shanahan called very few of those last season -- fewer than any other offensive coordinator -- partially because the run game worked so well. And partially because Garoppolo didnt seem comfortable throwing deep. Didnt rotate his hips enough or step into his long passes. Perhaps he was protecting his surgically-repaired left knee.

The knee is fine now. And this offseason, the 49ers spent a first-round pick on a wide receiver -- Brandon Aiyuk. It was the first time a Shanahan, father or son, had drafted a wide receiver in Round 1 since Mike took Ashley Lelie with the 19th pick in 2002.

Shanahan knows what to expect next season.

Opponents will crowd the line of scrimmage and dare Garoppolo to throw over the top, because the 49ers run game is so dangerous, and because he missed a crucial long throw in the Super Bowl.

Expect Garoppolo to practice and improve his deep throws this offseason. Expect him to connect downfield frequently with Aiyuk, George Kittle and Deebo Samuel during the regular season.

Expect the NFCs best rushing attack to evolve into the leagues best play-action passing game.

Natural selection will force the change -- and the fittest always survive.

Read more from the original source:

How the 49ers Offense will Evolve in 2020 - Sports Illustrated

For a batsman, zeroing in on the perfect bat is a meticulous process. The feel of the bat determines how every shot is played and so, a lot of thought goes into finding the right weight, balance and pickup. Often, the obsession doesnt end there. Batsmen can get quite quirky when it comes to bats. They could own ten bats of the highest quality, just to their liking, but still fixate on one particular piece of willow. Since that special bat brought them runs, they could perform every possible surgery on it to keep it going. Its an all-consuming relationship that batsmen share with their bats.

In terms of cricket bats used by top players, Indian manufacturers have always faced an uphill battle. Indian cricketers, just like players from across the world, preferred bats made in England for the longest time. Manufacturers like Gray-Nicolls, Gunn & More, Sykes and Duncan Fearnley enjoyed a monopoly of sorts in international cricket even as the game spread to different countries in the 20th century.

Relive epic moments, rare interviews and more from the world of sport.

Back in the day, through to the 1980s, Indian cricketers surely had a fascination for English bats, Jatin Sareen, Managing Director of SS, told Scroll.in.

Sanspareils Greenlands was, perhaps, the only Indian brand that managed to gain popularity, thanks to Sunil Gavaskars exploits in the 1970s and 80s. But that was about it as far as Indian bat manufacturers were concerned. It was only when Sachin Tendulkar burst onto the scene that things started to change.

Once the Tendulkar era began, Indian bats started picking up. He introduced a new shape to bats, the one with a big curve, said Sareen.

In these tough times, lift yourself up with inspiring stories from the world of sport.

While Tendulkars affinity with local brands triggered an upswing for the cricket equipment industry in India, manufacturers were soon faced with another big challenge the introduction of shorter formats. The rise of T20 International cricket brought along with it an unprecedented test of durability for bats.

Traditionally, players would spend a considerable amount of time preparing a bat before using it in a match. They would knock it in and oil it to ensure the grains opened up and the ball made a sweet sound off the wood.

Someone like Gavaskar would try to ensure he used just a couple of bats for an entire season. For any series or tour, Rahul Dravid would have a maximum of four bats in his kitbag at one time. He would say he gets confused if he has more bats.

However, that isnt the case anymore. With the volume of matches increasing consistently, players dont have the luxury of working on a new bat. Just a few hits in the nets and it has to be ready to use in a match. Furthermore, with batsmen getting more aggressive as the formats become shorter, the shelf life of bats has reduced drastically.

Away from the limelight, these heroes enrich our experience of following our favourite sport.

Were seeing a lot more bats breaking than we used to say 20 years ago, Paras Anand, Marketing Director of SG, told Scroll.in.

What we have started doing in recent years is making the bottom of the bat thicker. The bottom of every bat is compressed. It isnt just about T20 anymore. Across formats, cricketers use pretty much the same kind of bats. Players in the previous eras had the mindset of not hitting the ball too hard in the longer formats. But thats not what its like these days. If you look at players like Rohit Sharma and Hardik Pandya, if they are in the zone, they will go for their shots irrespective of the format. They are all stroke-players. They arent many Cheteshwar Pujaras.

Anand added: Earlier, if someone would bowl a yorker, you would try to defend it and not swing your bat hard to whack it. But now with formats like T20, where every ball counts, we have to ensure that the bottom of the bat can withstand the force. A lot of R&D goes into it, many advancements have been made in our processes, and we have strong quality control in place.

Shorter formats and the need for higher strike-rates have also led to a change in the weight and profile of bats. Essentially, a bat can be of two kinds one that has the maximum amount of weight at the bottom and the other that is bulky a little higher. While Tendulkar was famous for using a heavy bat, with Mahendra Singh Dhoni following in his footsteps later, most players gravitated towards lighter bats due to the demands of white-ball cricket.

Players like Tendulkar and Dhoni would want a bat that has the maximum amount of weight at the bottom. Their bats weighed 1,300 grams, said Anand. Then there are players like Dravid, Pujara and Virat Kohli, who want the maximum amount of wood a little higher on the bat. These days, even big hitters like Pandya use bats that weigh 1,180 grams. Rishabh Pant has bats that weigh 1,170 grams. Kohli, too, uses a very light bat, it weighs around 1,160 grams. So the weight has gone down, which means it is more challenging for the manufacturers to ensure that the bats dont break. The bat has to be durable without losing its punch.

Bats have come a long way. They are now manufactured on a large scale in almost every cricketing country. Their demand has seen a steady increase with more matches being played and more aggression being shown by batsmen. Despite all this, though, the biggest change that cricket bats have withstood is, perhaps, their personal relationship with the players. Obsessing over each bat is slowly becoming a thing of the past.

There has been a drastic change over the years, said Anand. Earlier, players werent as fussy about their bats as they are these days. Today, everyone sees the number of bats that a substitute brings out to the field if a player wants a replacement mid-innings. This is because of the amount of cricket that is being played and the nature of it. Earlier, perhaps, companies didnt have the production capacity to provide so many bats. But these days, some cricketers end up using 40-50 bats in a year.

Players know that its not like they have access to only a limited number of bats and they have to make sure each bat lasts an entire season. They ask for replacements all the time. Theyll simply pick up the phone and say bring me four more bats. The easiest players to satisfy were Dravid, Dhoni and Virender Sehwag. Nowadays, players know that they have access and that the sponsors will take care of them. Its a major change in the mindset.

Read more from the original source:

From Gavaskar to Kohli: The evolution of what Indias batsmen want from their bat - Scroll.in

When a mother gives birth to twins, the offspring are not always identical or even the same gender. Known as fraternal twins, they represent a longstanding evolutionary puzzle.

Identical twins arise from a single fertilised egg that accidentally splits in two, but fraternal twins arise when two eggs are released and fertilised. Why this would happen was the puzzle.

In research published today in Nature Ecology & Evolution we used computer simulations and modelling to try to explain why natural selection favours releasing two eggs, despite the low survival of twins and the risks of twin births for mothers.

Since Michael Bulmers landmark 1970 book on the biology of twinning in humans, biologists have questioned whether double ovulation was favoured by natural selection or, like identical twins, was the result of an accident.

Read more: Curious Kids: why are some twins identical and some not?

At first glance, this seems unlikely. The embryo splitting that produces identical twins is not heritable and the incidence of identical twinning does not vary with other aspects of human biology. It seems accidental in every sense of the word.

In contrast, the incidence of fraternal twinning changes with maternal age and is heritable.

Those do not sound like the characteristics of something accidental.

In human populations without access to medical care there seems little benefit to having twins. Twins are more likely to die in childhood than single births. Mothers of twins also have an increased risk of dying in childbirth.

In common with other great apes, women seem to be built to give birth to one child at a time. So if twinning is costly, why has evolution not removed it?

Paradoxically, in high-fertility populations, the mothers of twins often have more offspring by the end of their lives than other mothers. This suggests having twins might have an evolutionary benefit, at least for mothers.

But, if this is the case, why are twins so rare?

To resolve these questions, together with colleagues Bob Black and Rick Smock, we constructed simulations and mathematical models fed with data on maternal, child and fetal survival from real populations.

This allowed us to do something otherwise impossible: control in the simulations and modelling whether women ovulated one or two eggs during their cycles. We also modelled different strategies, where we switched women from ovulating one egg to ovulating two at different ages.

We could then compare the number of surviving children for women with different patterns of ovulation.

Women who switched from single to double ovulation in their mid-20s had the most children survive in our models more than those who always released a single egg, or always released two eggs.

This suggests natural selection favours an unconscious switch from single to double ovulation with increasing age.

The reason a switch is beneficial is fetal survival the chance that a fertilised egg will result in a liveborn child decreases rapidly as women age

So switching to releasing two eggs increases the chance at least one will result in a successful birth.

Read more: Same same but different: when identical twins are non-identical

But what about twinning? Is it a side effect of selection favouring fertility in older women? To answer this question, we ran the simulations again, except now when women double ovulated the simulation removed one offspring before birth.

In these simulations, women who double ovulated throughout their lives, but never gave birth to twins, had more children survive than those who did have twins and switched from single to double ovulating.

This suggests the ideal strategy would be to always double ovulate but never produce twins, so fraternal twins are an accidental side effect of a beneficial strategy of double ovulating.

Original post:

Not all twins are identical and that's been an evolutionary puzzle, until now - The Conversation AU

Three new titles to join the portfolio of first-person games by Evolution Gaming in a bid to expand innovation in the live iGaming segment.

Live casino game colossus Evolution Gaming has added three new games to its first-person table game collection. The announcement came today, May 14, when the company revealed three new entries: First-Person Baccarat, First-Person Dragon Tiger and First-Person Football Studio.

With this move Evolution Gaming is investing in the First-Person RNG games. Furthermore, the games have available the GO LIVE functionality. All three games are based on the highly successful live dealer table games by Evolution: Dragon Tiger and Baccarat, which are all-time casino classics. Meanwhile, Football Studio is a top card football themed game.

Starting in 2006, Evolution Gaming has proved to be one of the top casino game developers. Helping licensed operators grow and providing superb user experience, for Evolution Gaming the sky is the limit.

But here is what Evolution Gaming Chief Product Officer Todd Haushalter had to say about the three new titles:

Our goal when creating the First Person games was to make the worlds best RNG table games. When our first two games, First Person Roulette and Blackjack, were launched we agonised over ensuring that the 3D graphics and performance were perfect. We also included the GO LIVE button to take players to the live version of the same game. Those first two titles proved incredibly popular so we broadened our goal to include RNG versions of our game show games. Now were launching another trio of First Person games to add even more variety.

The first-person version of Baccarat places the player in a virtual game hall. Players are treated as VIP clients and can choose between 12 tables. Half of the tables are standard ones while the other half is No Commission tables. The player has the choice to shuffle the shoe, sort tables by streaks and also deal free hands on vacant tables to build trends.

The next title on the list, the Dragon Tiger also offers players a full control over the gameplay, more or less. The RNG game is really easy to play and the goal is to choose which card will be higher. Players bet on one of two cards Dragon or Tiger and upon revealing the outcome synchronized light effects are played to boost up the casino experience.

Last but not least, first-person Football Studio is a Top card RNG game. Similar to Dragon Tiger, the game is easy to play. Players get to choose one of two cards which are dealt face-up on a virtual football pitch table. The players can bet on either Home Win, Away Win or Draw, while at the same time monitoring live match updates.

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Evolution Games Revealed Three New First-Person Table Games - GamblingNews.com

Thursday, June 11th, 2020 | 12:00 pm - 1:00 pm CT

Procedures and instrumentation to treat spine pathologies have evolved over decades to improve patient outcomes. The oblique lumbar interbody fusion or OLIF technique, combined with Camber Spines implants and instrumentation, specifically designed for this approach, uses a minimally invasive approach to create a lumbar spinal corridor anterior to the psoas muscle (oblique lateral) to achieve an optimal coronal and saggital lumbar interbody fusion as well as a maximized indirect decompression of the posterior neural elements.

OLIF can reduce hospital costs, operative time and disposables costs due to the ability to perform both the anterior and posterior operations in one session.

After sufficient training, a spine surgeon can perform an OLIF without the help of an access surgeon, as is common in ALIF procedures.

A reduction in OR time and time under anesthesia is beneficial to patients, especially those with co-morbidities or higher risk factors. Fewer surgical sessions and less invasiveness help to reduce overall length of stay, as well.

Join us for a webinar on using the OLIF approach to reconstruct the anterior column and address lumbar pathology with renowned spine surgeon Dr. John I. Williams. During this webinar, Dr. Williams will discuss patient selection, pre-op planning, positioning and OLIF technique as well as surgical outcomes.

In this webinar, you'll learn:

John I. Williams, MD

Spine Surgeon, SpineONE

John I. Williams, M.D., is a board certified and fellowship trained Orthopedic spine surgeon specializing in diseases and surgeries of the spine for SpineONE, a division of Ortho NorthEast, and has over 30 years of experience in the field of medicine. Dr. Williams is board certified by the American Board of Orthopaedic Surgery and is a Diplomate of the National Board of Medical Examiners. He is a member of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, the Indiana State Medical Society, the American Medical Association and the Fort Wayne Medical Society. Dr. Williams is a member of the Clinical Faculty, Department.

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Learn the latest in the evolution of minimally invasive spine surgery - Becker's Hospital Review

The concept of the crossover is not a new one, but the marketing term that gave birth to the segment is. The SUV came into its own in the late 1980s and early 1990s as, mostly, a more comfortable truck. SUVs were, and still are, brawny and capable in all conditions, and utility was the keyword in the Sport Utility Vehicle. Then, in the mid-1990s, the crossover as we know it now showed up.

There's no official definition for a crossover, but we've mostly come to know it as an SUV style vehicle based around a car's chassis. A crossover typically has the everyday practicality of an SUV but sacrifices off-road and towing ability, to varying degrees, to gain the road manners of a car. In the mid-1990s, automakers started building crossovers to be family-friendly and with enough ride height to take on rough surfaces. Most crossovers also either came standard with all-wheel-drive or as an option. However, the first genuine attempt a crossover showed up in the US in 1980, and that's where we'll start.

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The Evolution Of The Crossover: 40 Years In The Making - CarBuzz

BusinessEvolving health research could catalyse demand for high-end office space in Scotlands cities from the burgeoning life sciences sector, according to Knight Frank.

Tuesday, 12th May 2020, 4:45 pm

The UK Life Sciences report from the property consultancy which has offices in Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Glasgow and Melrose has found that growing collaboration between companies in the industry and the wider tech sector, plus more computational science, will cause seismic shifts in the industrys property requirements.

As medical technology, biopharmaceutical, and digital health companies become more interdependent, property will need to reflect their growing need to cluster in new locations, according to the report. It also highlighted the 750 million expansion plans at Edinburghs BioQuarter and the establishment of the Medicines Manufacturing Centre in Renfrewshire as examples of the trend already taking hold in Scotland.

Knight Frank also said Edinburgh and Glasgow were among the top UK locations for investment in digital health, attracting 30m and 10.5m respectively.Scottish Development International says there are more than 750 life sciences organisations in Scotland, with the sector adding 2.4 billion to the economy, on track to reach turnover of 8bn by 2025.

Lee Elliott, Knight Franks global head of occupier research, said: Covid-19 has brought the growing importance of life science and health research companies to the fore. The needs of the NHS, and other health services, will likely cause an acceleration in the convergence of technology and life sciences, particularly around digital diagnostics and preventative medicine.

The restructuring of life sciences companies will bring a new wave of demand from the sector, particularly in Scotland where [small and medium-sized enterprises] make up the majority of the industry.

Indeed, landlords that are able to provide flexible, cost-effective space to accommodate the rapid growth these companies can achieve and help them track their investment will be well-positioned. So too will facilities that are future-proof and capable of manufacturing advanced therapeutics.

Occupier services partner Simon Capaldi said: The shift towards more computational [research and development] will see an increase in the need for more conventional office space in city-centre locations. It is perhaps no surprise that were seeing more demand from the sector in Edinburgh, which offers a deep pool of data science talent.

Tech, more broadly, has emerged over the past five years or so as a significant source of activity in Edinburghs office market, accounting for around one-third of city centre take-up.

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Evolution of life sciences to spur need for high-end office space in Scots cities - The Scotsman

Robert F. Shedingers interesting post yesterday onLouis Agassizbrought to my mind some additional thoughts on this complex figure in the annals of American science. Shedinger is quite correct in highlighting Agassizs staunch opposition to Darwin and his creationist perspective. He is also correct in pointing out Agassizs tireless efforts at working to bring American science up to the standards of Europe. This, as he points out, includes his establishment of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard as well as his role in founding the National Academy of Sciences. These are indisputably notable achievements.

Agassiz had his demons, however, and Shedinger cites my article, Plato Meets Polygeny, that discusses his rather benighted racial views (available open access in theJournal of the Southern Association for the History of Medicine and Science). In fact, those views make Agassiz a problematic figure in the complex intellectual terrain of mid-19th century Anglo-America. (Since this essay is readily obtainable, Ill not belabor the details here.) But despite the significance of Agassizs scientific accomplishments, his heavy historical baggage cannot be lightly discarded or ignored.

First of all, his biblical exegesis of multiple Adams with its presumption of separate racial origins (and hierarchies) incurred the ire of the vast majority of the Christian community even inhis own day, with only Southern sympathizers rushing to its defense more for political than religious reasons. Orthodoxy was quickly cast aside by apologists for the Souths peculiar institution, a dubious alliance at best for a man of science like Agassiz.

But second, and more importantly, Agassizs racial views were not, in the final analysis, that far from Darwins own. Like Darwin, Agassiz was convinced that craniometry was an accurate measure of racial difference and mental capacity. Darwins approving references to the craniometric data of Paul Broca and Joseph Barnard Davis were matched by Agassizs embrace of Samuel George MortonsCrania Americana(1839) andCrania gyptiaca(1844). Despite Agassizs vocal opposition to Darwinian evolution, he ended up siding with Darwin on the race question. Thomas Henry Huxley largely echoed Darwins and Agassizs sentiments on race.

How could this be? It turns out Agassiz makes the same mistake Darwin did; he failed to make an all-important distinction between human and animal. Agassiz wrote, the differences existing between races of men are of the same kind as the differences observed between the different families, genera, and species of monkeys or other animals; and that these different species of animals differ in the same degree one from the other as the races of men, some even more so. Agassiz emphasized that this is one of the most important and unexpected features in the Natural History of Mankind. This is hardly different from Darwins own assertion in hisDescent of Man(1871) that there is no fundamental difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties. Whatever Agassizs creationist commitments, he (like Darwin) made a cardinal error: he rejected human exceptionalism, a foundational Judeo-Christian concept. In short, Agassiz practiced heterodox religion and bad science.

If I had to praise a contemporary of both Agassiz and Darwin who didnotshare these untenable notions it would be Richard Owen, an opponent of Darwin who defended racial equality on scientific grounds and held to a structuralist formulation of nature fully compatible with purpose and human exceptionalism. Owens courageous defense of racial equality and Huxleys disingenuous Darwinian racism is carefully examined in Christopher E. CosanssOwens Ape & Darwins Bulldog.

Whenever I think of Agassiz I can only recall his statue buried in the pavement in front of the Stanford zoology building following the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, a tragicomic reminder of a once famous scientist who ended up irrelevant even to a fellow Darwin doubter like American science polymath James Dwight Dana. As I conclude in my essay, Agassiz became a lamentable figure lost in the murky shadows of his own Platonist forms. And there he will likely remain.

Photo: Statue of Agassiz buried in the pavement, 1906, Stanford University, by Frank Davey / Public domain.

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Louis Agassiz: Some Additional Thoughts - Discovery Institute