Category Archives: Astronomy

The protostar inside the dark cloud L1527 with the near-infrared camera (NIRCam) of the James Webb Space Telescope. Credit: NASA. Zeus Valtierra Meteored Mexico 11/07/2024 09:49 8 min

Wherever the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) looks in the vast cosmos, matter and energy interact in spectacular exhibitions revealing more details than any other telescope, thanks to the fact that it can see through the dense gas and dust that hides many celestial objects.

In a new image, the JWST has detected a young protostar approximately 100,000 years old. This star, known as L1527, is still in its early stages of formation and is nestled in the molecular cloud that was the one that generated it.

One of the main reasons why NASA, in collaboration with the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), built the JWST was precisely to observe these phenomena.

The image in question was captured using the Middle Infrared Instrument (MIRI) of the JWST. Where it is shown that the young protostar continues to grow, accumulating mass of the protoplanetary disk that surrounds it. This disc is crucial for the development of the star, since it provides the necessary material for its growth.

The protostar is not a main sequence star, which means that it is not experiencing nuclear fusion like the Sun does. Although there may be a small amount of deuterium fusion in its nucleus, the protostar generates energy in a different way.

As the gravity of the protostar attracts material to it, it is compressed and heated. The additional energy comes from the shock waves generated by the incoming material that collides with the existing gas. Which illuminates the protostar and its surroundings within the gigantic molecular cloud that generated it.

As young protostars accumulate mass, they generate powerful magnetic fields. These fields, combined with the rotation of the star, move part of the matter away from the protostar.

Thus, as a protostar acquires mass, it also expels part of it into space in spectacular hourglass-shaped jets that emerge from the poles of the star. These jets create visible shock arcs in the surrounding matter, forming filamentous structures.

In the environment of the star L1527 there are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HAP), organic compounds abundant throughout the Universe that could have contributed to the appearance of life. In the image captured by the JWST, these compounds shine blue, even in the filamentous structures.

The red region in the center of the image is a thick layer of gas and dust that surrounds the young star, illuminated by its energy. The white region between red and blue is a mixture of materials, including more polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HAP), as well as ionised gases such as neon and other hydrocarbons.

This interaction of matter and energy is transient. The powerful emanations of the protostar will clean much of the gas and dust from its surroundings, preserving its protoplanetary disk. And it will become a main sequence star, easily visible without its veil of gas and dust.

The study of these hydrocarbons and other compounds in the L1527 environment provides us with valuable information about the chemical ingredients that could have played a role in the formation of life in the Universe. Opening up new possibilities for astrobiology and the search for life in other stellar systems.

There are many unanswered questions about the formation of protostars. For example, astrophysicists still do not know exactly how and when the nuclear fusion is triggered that turns a protostar into a main sequence star.

Although astronomers know that there are powerful magnetic fields around the protostars, they do not fully understand how these fields are formed or what role they play in the collapse and rotation of the star.

The JWST has made some progress in this area. Recently, he confirmed that the jets of material expelled by young stars are aligned due to the rotation of the star and its magnetic fields, something that the theory had suggested but had not been confirmed by observations until now.

There are also uncertainties about how binary stars are formed. Are they formed in the same way as solitary stars? Why are there so many binary stars in the universe?

The processes involved play an important role in the formation of planetary systems. Jets and magnetic fields can influence the distribution of the material in the protoplanetary disk, affecting the formation of planets and other celestial bodies.

The study of these phenomena provides information about the formation of planetary systems and the origins of life in the Universe. With each new observation, the JWST brings us one step closer to unraveling the mysteries of the cosmos.

The exact nature of the phenomena that trigger the formation of stars remains a mystery. The shock waves of supernovae can trigger the birth of stars, but what happens in other cases? Is it just a matter of the density of gas and dust?

The answers to these questions will come gradually. Thanks to the ability of the JWST to observe in great detail the young stars and the clouds of gas and dust that surround them, the telescope is advancing in our understanding of these astronomical processes, one image at a time.

Continued here:

The JWST continues to revolutionise astronomy: It now shows the birth of a Star - Yourweather.co.uk

The Hubble Space Telescope has captured a breathtaking image of the barred spiral galaxy NGC 3059, located approximately 57 million light-years from Earth in the constellation Carina.

This image not only showcases the beauty of the galaxy but also provides valuable insights into the processes of star formation. The intricate details revealed by Hubble's instruments highlight the dynamic and complex structure of NGC 3059, a galaxy teeming with star-forming regions and other fascinating features.

The data for this image were collected in May 2024 using Hubbles Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3). The observations employed a range of filters, including the crucial narrow-band H-alpha filter. This specific filter isolates the H-alpha emission at 656.46 nanometers, a key indicator of star-forming regions.

By using this filter, astronomers can identify areas within the galaxy where new stars are being born. These regions often appear as bright, red patches in the images, indicating high concentrations of hydrogen gas that are actively forming new stars.

The H-alpha emission is a result of hydrogen atoms emitting red light under certain conditions, often associated with the birth of new stars. This emission line is a vital tool for astronomers studying star formation and the physical conditions within galaxies.

The image of NGC 3059 reveals several such regions, highlighting the dynamic and active nature of this barred spiral galaxy. These findings are crucial for understanding the lifecycle of stars and the overall process of galaxy evolution.

Filters play a crucial role in observational astronomy by allowing astronomers to isolate specific wavelengths of light. Narrow-band filters, like the H-alpha filter used in this study, are particularly valuable because they can pinpoint specific physical and chemical processes occurring in space.

These filters enable scientists to conduct detailed studies of astronomical objects and phenomena. For example, the H-alpha filter helps identify regions of ionized hydrogen gas, which are indicative of star formation activities.

In addition to the narrow-band filter, the image of NGC 3059 was created using data from five other wide-band filters. These filters allow a broader range of light wavelengths to pass through, providing a more comprehensive view of the galaxy. The wide-band filters capture light across the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared spectrum, which helps to map out different components of the galaxy, such as its spiral arms, central bar, and various star populations.

The combination of narrow-band and wide-band filters results in a rich, detailed image that captures both the general structure and specific features of the galaxy. This multi-wavelength approach allows astronomers to study the interplay between different stellar populations and the interstellar medium.

NGC 3059, also known as ESO 37-7, IRAS 09496-7341, or LEDA 28298, has a diameter of 55,000 light-years. It was discovered by English astronomer John Herschel on February 22, 1835. The detailed observations made by Hubble provide a deeper understanding of the processes occurring within this galaxy, particularly the mechanisms driving star formation. The data reveal not only the locations of star-forming regions but also their distribution and intensity, offering clues about the galaxy's past interactions and overall star formation history.

Studying galaxies like NGC 3059 helps astronomers piece together the broader puzzle of galactic evolution and the lifecycle of stars. The presence of numerous star-forming regions within NGC 3059 indicates that it is an active and evolving galaxy.

By analyzing the data collected through these filters, scientists can gain insights into the initial stages of star formation and the conditions required for these processes to occur. Moreover, the study of barred spiral galaxies like NGC 3059 helps astronomers understand the role of galactic bars in funneling gas towards the central regions, triggering star formation.

The role of the central bar in NGC 3059 is particularly intriguing. Galactic bars are thought to act as engines driving the inward flow of gas, which can lead to bursts of star formation in the central regions of the galaxy. Observations of NGC 3059s bar and its impact on the surrounding star formation provide valuable data for testing models of galaxy dynamics and evolution. This helps refine our understanding of how galaxies like the Milky Way have evolved over billions of years.

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Hubble Reveals Stunning Galaxy Concealing the Mysteries of Star Formation - The Daily Galaxy --Great Discoveries Channel

Best Monocular 2024: Jump Menu

The best monocular can be a handy and portable way to view wildlife, birds or the night sky. While they may not be the first thing that comes to mind when you think of optical equipment, they can have several benefits over the best binoculars and the best telescopes.

As what is essentially half of a pair of binoculars, a monocular is a small, lightweight option for viewing distant objects that is pocket-sized and even more travel-friendly than a pair of the best compact binoculars.

They're also simple to use and don't need the technical know-how required for setting up even the best beginner telescopes. This makes them perfect for travelers who want to quickly pull out an observation device when they spot something interesting in the distance.

Our reviewers have tried and tested a range of different monocular options to bring you a list of the very best on the market, for different users and budgets.

Jamie Carter

Jamie is a Contributing Writer for Space.com and put together this guide. He is an experienced science, technology and travel journalist and stargazer who writes about exploring the night sky, solar and lunar eclipses, moon-gazing, astro-travel, astronomy and space exploration.

Jamie is the editor ofWhenIsTheNextEclipse.comand authorofA Stargazing Program For Beginners,and is a senior contributor at Forbes.

Best super lightweight model

Opticron Explorer WA ED-R 8x42

Best super lightweight model

Despite its low price, the wide-field ED optics use the most recent multi-coating technology, which results in plenty of contrast, clarity and a premium feel.

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Best for ruggedness

Hawke Endurance ED 10x42 monocular

Best for ruggedness

This lightweight and waterproof monocular is ideal for observing in the wilderness. This monocular is made to survive the elements and has a waterproof chassis and strong grip armoring.

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Best premium monocular

Bushnell Legend Ultra 10x42 monocular

Best premium monocular

Boasting a 42mm objective lens and a 10x magnification, Bushnell's ED Prime HD glass, with its multi-coated and anti-reflective optics, provides clear and detailed views at just 13.2 oz.

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Best for wildlife

Vortex Recon R/T 15x50 monocular

Best for wildlife

At 15x magnification, the Vortex Recon R/T 15x50 will give you a closer look at objects than your average monocular or pair of astronomy-centric binoculars.

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Best for spectacles wearers

Opticron Oregon 4 PC 10x42 monocular

Best for spectacles wearers

This monocular has phase-corrected prism coatings and multi-coated optics to deliver clear, crisp views daily and in low light.

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Best for magnification

Apexel 36x super zoom monocular/smartphone lens

Best for magnification

Apexel 36x is a fixed optical zoom monocular that doubles as a smartphone lens for taking photos and videos of the Moon.

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Best for use with a smartphone

Celestron Outland X 10x50

Best for use with a smartphone

The Celestron Outland X 10x50 monocular has a smartphone mount and could be considered an ideal digiscoping companion for those who want to image the night sky, especially the Moon.

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Best for moon observations

Best for moon observations

With a maximum of 25x magnification, this variable-magnification monocular is best suited to lunar viewing but can also focus on objects only 20 inches/50 cm away.

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Best super lightweight model for wide angles: boasting great specifications for basic astronomy

Magnification: 8x

Objective lens diameter: 42mm / 1.73-inch

Field of view: 7.8 degrees

Eye relief: 18mm / 0.71-inch

Closest focusing distance: 6.6ft / 2.01m

Waterproof: Yes

Fog-proof: Yes

Weight: 9.2 oz / 261g

Dimensions: 4.72 x 1.57 x 1.69-inch / 120 x 40 x 43mm

Top quality optics

Waterproof and fog-proof

Pocketable

Ergonomically nicer than the binocular counterpart

Low stock

Buy it if

You want a great all-rounder:It's affordable, lets plenty of light through, is compact and lightweight, good for beginners and stargazers, can withstand tough conditions and has excellent ED optics.

Don't buy it if:

You want high magnification:For zooming in on fine details, you'd likely want an instrument that has a higher magnification. A 10x variant of this model is available.

The bottom line

Opticron Explorer WA ED-R 8x42A great all-rounder that boasts fantastic quality optics in a compact package at an affordable price. Perfect for wide-field observations and comfortable and easy to use.

For those who are new to stargazing, the Opticron Explorer WA ED-2 8x42 is a fantastic monocular. It can capture a lot of light from distant stars because of the 42mm objective lens, and the 8x magnification is perfect for reducing wobbles and improving focus on objects.

This monocular is very portable, waterproof to three meters and nitrogen-filled to minimize fogging while moving between warm and cold conditions, making it ideal for a whole hostof outdoor activities. Additionally, a soft neoprene travel case with a cushioned strap, rain protection and rubber lens covers to prevent scratches on the glass is included.

Glasses-wearers will benefit from the generous 17mm eye relief, and it even comes with a limited lifetime warranty. Overall, this is a reasonably-priced monocular with a wide-field view that is ideal for newcomers to astronomy who want to get their first look at the night sky.

Despite the affordable price, the optics on this monocular really are excellent. It features extra-low dispersion (ED) glass to reduce chromatic aberration and ensure accurate color rendition. The optics are also multi-coated, which helps them to produce an image with good contrast and clarity. All this makes it feel like a more premium product than the price would suggest.

Today's best Opticron Explorer WA ED-R 8x42 deals

Best for ruggedness: this lightweight and waterproof monocular is ideal for observing in the wilderness

Magnification: 10x

Objective lens diameter: 42mm / 1.65-inch

Field of view: 5.8 degrees

Eye relief: 13mm / 0.51-inch

Closest focusing distance: 6.6ft / 2.01m

Waterproof: Yes

Fog-proof: Yes

Weight: 11.5oz / 326g

Dimensions: 5.6 x 3.1-inch / 143 x 80mm

Excellent optics

Astro-centric specifications

Waterproof and fog-proof

Large for a pocket

Eye relief isn't great

Buy it if

You want to travel with it:It's lightweight and portable (although not small enough to fit into a pocket), making it a great option for observing wildlife or the night sky when out and about.

Don't buy it if:

You wear glasses:The eye relief is only 13mm, so if you wear eyeglasses you'd be wise to choose a different option.

The bottom line

Hawke Endurance ED 10x42 monocularFantastic quality glass in a small and lightweight package, making it perfect for on-the-go observations. It's designed to withstand various weather conditions and comes with great quality accessories.

The Hawke Endurance ED 10x42 has a tough, durable design, making it perfect for travel. It's built to handle rough conditions while still providing high-quality performance. This monocular has special phase-corrected BaK-4 roof prisms, fully multi-coated lenses and extra-low dispersion (ED) glass. These features help capture more light and reduce color distortion, giving you a very clear and true-to-color image. Overall, we think it makes for a really great viewing experience.

With its waterproof optics, you can use this monocular worry-free even in rough weather. Plus, it's nitrogen-purged to prevent fogging. And with its rubber casing, lens covers and lanyard, you're less likely to accidentally drop or misplace it.

With more than 350 reviews on Amazon, users like the portability, value and ease of use, scoring this monocular 4.5 out of 5 stars overall.

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Best monocular 2024: Spy top models on the market - Space.com

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This week, early risers can look for Mars and Saturn on parade with a slim crescent Moon.

In this view at 4 a.m. EDT local time on May 31, Saturn lies just 0.4 from the Moon. Credit: Astronomy: Roen Kelly

The waning Moon continues its journey through our skies this week, passing by a couple of bright planets:the red planet Mars and the ringed wonder Saturn. In the pre-dawn hours on June 4, look east and youll see a very slender crescent Moon just 6 percent illuminated with Mars and Saturn both glowing at around first magnitude. This pretty scene will make for a great wide-field photograph, and is ripe for further exploration with binoculars or a telescope.

To learn more about observing this months full planetary parade, check out the June 2024 edition of Sky This Month.

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The Moon, Mars, and Saturn line up: This Week in Astronomy with Dave Eicher - Astronomy Magazine

Astronomers using the Multi Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) instrument on ESOs Very Large Telescope (VLT) in Chile have imaged 177-341 W, a proplyd an externally illuminated protoplanetary disk around a young star located in the Orion Nebula Cluster.

This VLT/MUSE image shows the proplyd 177-341 W. Image credit: ESO / Aru et al., doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202349004.

Young stars are surrounded by a disk of gas and dust the building materials for planets.

When other very bright and massive stars are present nearby, their light heats the young stars disk, stripping away part of its material.

Protoplanetary disks, composed of gas and dust, emerge as a consequence of the star formation process, and provide the birth-places of planetary systems, explained ESO astronomer Mari-Liis Aru and colleagues.

The evolutionary pathways of protoplanetary disks and their ability to form planets are expected to differ depending on the surrounding environment, with disks undergoing rapid changes in the presence of massive stars.

In massive clusters near OB-type stars, ultraviolet (UV) radiation can externally photoevaporate disks and severely diminish their size, mass, and survival timescale.

The astronomers used the MUSE instrument on ESOs Very Large Telescope to observe 177-341 W and 11 other proplyds in the Orion Nebula Cluster, which is about 400 parsecs distant from the Sun.

The stars eroding away the disk of 177-341 W are out of the frame past the upper-right corner, the researchers said.

When their radiation clashes with the material around the young star, it creates the bright, bow-like structure seen here in yellow.

The tail extending from the star towards the lower-left corner is material being dragged away from 177-341 W by the stars out of the field of view.

The colors shown in this image map different elements like hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen, they added.

But this is just a small fraction of all the data gathered by MUSE, which actually takes thousands of images at different colors or wavelengths simultaneously.

This allows us to study the physical properties of protoplanetary disks in great detail, including the amount of mass that they lose.

A paper on the findings appears in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics.

_____

M.-L. Aru et al. 2024. Kaleidoscope of irradiated disks: MUSE observations of proplyds in the Orion Nebula Cluster. I. Sample presentation and ionization front sizes. A&A, in press; doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202349004

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MUSE Spots Bizarre Stellar Object with Illuminated Protoplanetary Disk - Sci.News

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A line of solar system worlds is getting ready to wow in the pre-dawn sky next month.

Theres a major planetary lineup coming to the early-morning sky, with the Moon joining in several times in June.

First, though, lets look at why such lineups occur. If you were to turn our solar system on its side and look at it edge-on, youd notice that all the planets orbit in a relatively flat plane around the Sun. We call this plane the ecliptic, which is defined specifically by Earths orbit around our star. So, Earths orbit is tilted 0 from the ecliptic because it defines the ecliptic. All the other planets orbits are inclined somewhat from the ecliptic, but not much Mercurys inclination is the highest, and its just 7.

When we look up into the sky from Earth, we see that all the planets and the Sun and (mostly) the Moon lie along the ecliptic in our sky. And when everything happens to fall into a position such that we can see several planets in the sky at once, they all tend to stand in a line precisely because they all follow that flat ecliptic. The geometry isnt always perfect, as the planets orbits do have those small inclinations, but its always a stunning sight to see.

On June 3, six planets form a straight line through the pre-dawn sky that stretches from Jupiter on the eastern end (closest to the horizon) up through Mercury, Uranus, Mars, and Neptune, to Saturn on the western end, highest in the sky before sunrise. Some 20 minutes before sunrise, all six planets should be visible, though note that Uranus (magnitude 5.9) and Neptune (magnitude 7.8) will be too faint for naked-eye observing and, although theyre present in the lineup, will need binoculars or a telescope to spot. But Jupiter (magnitude 2), Mercury (magnitude 1), Mars (magnitude 1), and Saturn (magnitude 1) will all stand out clearly to the naked eye in a line spanning some 73 on the sky.

Whats more, a delicate waning crescent Moon is crashing the party as well, standing just to the lower left of Mars. Note, however, that our Moon is not perfectly in line thats because Lunas orbit is tilted some 5 with respect to the ecliptic.

The next morning, June 4, the crescent Moon does a little better, falling more closely in line a bit farther from Mars. But now Mercury has stepped out of place and stands to Jupiters lower right (south) as the two planets reach a close conjunction just 7 apart not to be missed, especially in binoculars or telescopes!

By June 5, Mercury lies to Jupiters lower left, replacing the gas giant as the easternmost point in the planetary lineup. And the nearly New Moon (just 2 percent lit) stands above the pair.

As June progresses, Mercury quickly ducks out of view, passing close to the Sun before reappearing in the evening sky and leaving us with only five planets in the pre-dawn sky. But those planets continue to form a nice, clean line, stretching nearly 80 from Jupiter to Saturn (with Uranus, Mars, and Neptune in between) by June 30. On this morning, the Moon as rejoined the line, once again a delicate waning crescent about 33 percent lit, hanging perfectly in place to Mars upper right.

Planetary lineups like this arent uncommon, but theyre always beautiful. Its well worth taking some time, even if you have to get up a bit early, to stand outside and enjoy a clear view across the solar system from your doorstep.

For weekly updates on the planets, stars, and more, make sure to also check out our Sky This Week column.

Editors note: This article was first published in May and has been updated.

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Look up to see the parade of planets in June's pre-dawn sky (and bring binoculars) - Astronomy Magazine

The presented image may initially be confusing. Is it a comet? A meteor? A spacecraft? In fact, its a young star. But why does it have such an unusual shape?

Newborn stars are surrounded by gas-dust disks. Their substance serves as a building material for exoplanets. If there are other very bright and massive stars nearby with such newborn systems, their light heats the disks, depriving them of some of the material.

This is what happened to the star 177-341 W located in the Orion nebula. Exposure to radiation from another star (it is located outside the frame in the upper right corner) led to the formation of a characteristic bright structure in its protoplanetary disk, the shape of which resembles a bow. The tail stretching from the star to the lower left corner consists of carried-away material. Astronomers sometimes figuratively call such ionized protoplanetary disks bald spots.

The image of 177-341 W was taken using the MUSE multispectrometer mounted on a Very Large Telescope. The colors correspond to various chemical elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen.

But this is only a small part of the data collected by MUSE, which takes thousands of images at different wavelengths at the same time. This allows astronomers to study the physical properties of protoplanetary disks in great detail, including the amount of mass they lose. In this way, they will learn exactly how the process of formation of stars and planetary systems takes place.

Earlier we talked about how Christ the Redeemer put the moon on his shoulders.

According to ESO

Since childhood, I have been interested in space, astronomy and everything related to them. Over time, this hobby turned into a professional career. I took part in popular science lectures, wrote articles for publications devoted to various aspects of the history of space exploration and its prospects. In The Universe. Space. Tech, I am engaged in writing news, fact-checking and preparing various analytical materials.

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Astronomers photograph a star resembling a comet - The Universe. Space. Tech

Starlink is the name of a satellite network developed by the private spaceflight company SpaceX to provide low-cost internet to remote locations.

A Starlink satellite has a lifespan of approximately five years and SpaceX eventually hopes to have as many as 42,000 satellites in this so-called megaconstellation.

The current V2 Starlink satellite version weighs approximately 1,760 lbs (800 kilograms) at launch, almost three times heavier than the older generation satellites (weighing in at 573 lbs or 260 kg), according to Spaceflight Now.

Related: Wild solar weather is causing satellites to plummet from orbit

As of May 2024, there are 6,078 Starlink satellites in orbit, of which 6,006 are working, according to Astronomer Jonathan McDowell who tracks the constellation on his website.

The size and scale of the Starlink project concerns astronomers, who fear that the bright, orbiting objects will interfere with observations of the universe, as well as spaceflight safety experts who now see Starlink as the number one source of collision hazard in Earth's orbit. In addition to that, some scientists worry that the amount of metal that will be burning up in Earth's atmosphere as old satellites are deorbited could trigger unpredictable changes to the planet's climate.

Starlink satellites orbit approximately 342 miles (550 kilometers) above Earth and put on a spectacular show for observers as they move across the sky. This show is not welcomed by all and can significantly hinder both optical and radio astronomical observations.

You don't need any special equipment to see Starlink satellites as they are visible to the unaided eye. The satellites can appear as a string of pearls or a "train" of bright lights moving across the night sky. Starlink satellites are easier to see a day or two after their launch and deployment then become progressively harder to spot as they climb to their final orbital height of around 342 miles (550 km).

Related: Starlink satellite train: How to see and track it in the night sky

Our list of the best stargazing apps may help you with your Starlink viewing planning. If you want to see where all of the Starlink satellites are located in real-time check out this Starlink map showing the global coverage of each Starlink satellite as well as information on how many are currently in service, inactive or have burned up in Earth's atmosphere.

Related: How to photograph Starlink satellites guide.

To see current Starlink internet availability around the world, and if it's available where you are, Starlink has an interactive map detailing locations where Starlink internet is available, which areas are on the waitlist as well as areas that are "coming soon".

"Starlink is ideally suited for areas where connectivity has been unreliable or completely unavailable," the Starlink main page states. "People across the globe are using Starlink to gain access to education, health services and even communications support during natural disasters."

More information about Starlink setup, along with answers to frequently answered questions, are available on the customer service page.

SpaceX's satellite internet proposal was announced in January 2015. Though it wasn't given a name at the time, CEO Elon Musk said that the company had filed documents withinternational regulators to place about 4,000 satellites in low Earth orbit.

"We're really talking about something which is, in the long term, like rebuilding the internet in space," Musk said during a speech in Seattle when revealing the project.

SpaceX's satellite internet proposal was announced in January 2015. Though it wasn't given a name at the time, CEO Elon Musk said that the company had filed documents with international regulators to place about 4,000 satellites in Low Earth Orbit.

"We're really talking about something which is, in the long term, like rebuilding the internet in space," Musk said during a speech in Seattle when revealing the project.

Musk's initial estimate of the number of satellites soon grew, as he hoped to capture a part of the estimated $1 trillion worldwide internet connectivity market to help achieve his Mars colonization vision. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has granted SpaceX permission to fly 12,000 Starlink satellites, and the company has filed paperwork with an international regulator to loft up to 30,000 additional spacecraft.

To put that into perspective, as of Nov. 7, 2022, only 14,450 satellites have been launched in all of history with 6,800 currently active according to the European Space Agency (ESA).

SpaceX launched its first two Starlink test craft, named TinTinA and TinTinB, in February 2018. The mission went smoothly. Based on initial data, the company asked regulators for its fleet to be allowed to operate at lower altitudes than originally planned, and the FCC agreed.

The first 60 Starlink satellites launched on May 23, 2019, aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. The satellites successfully reached their operational altitude of 340 miles (550 kilometers).

Within days of the first 60-satellite Starlink launch, skywatchers spotted a linear pearl string of lights as the spacecraft whizzed overhead in the early morning. Web-based guides showed others how to track down the spectacular display.

"This was quite an amazing sight, and I was shouting 'Owowowow!' when the bright 'train' of objects entered into view," Netherlands-based satellite tracker Marco Langbroek told Space.com in 2019 via email. "They were brighter than I had anticipated."

That brightness was a surprise to almost everyone, including both SpaceX and the astronomical community. Researchers began to panic and shared photos of satellite streaks in their data, such as this trail image from the Lowell Observatory in Arizona.

They expressed particular concerns about future images from highly sensitive telescopes such as the Vera Rubin Observatory (formerly known as the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope), which will study the entire universe in exquisite detail and is expected to come online in 2022. Radio astronomers are also planning for interference from Starlink's radio-based antennas.

In photos: SpaceX launches 60 Starlink satellites to orbit

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) expressed concerns in a statement released in June 2019. "Satellite constellations can pose a significant or debilitating threat to important existing and future astronomical infrastructures, and we urge their designers and deployers as well as policy-makers to work with the astronomical community in a concerted effort to analyze and understand the impact of satellite constellations," the statement said.

In April 2021, Thomas Schildknecht, the deputy director of the Astronomical Institute of the University of Bern, who represents Switzerland in the IAU, said at the European Space Agency's space debris conference that the union was calling on the United Nations to protect pristine night sky as cultural heritage against the uncontrolled expansion of megaconstellations.

In a report released in October 2022, the American Astronomical Society (ASS) likened the impact of megaconstellations on astronomy to light pollution. The report said the sky may brighten by a factor of two to three due to the diffuse reflection of sunlight off the spacecraft.

Related: Can you see stars in light polluted skies?

We spoke to Meredith Rawls is a stellar astronomer and software developer about the effects of low-Earth orbit satellites on ground-based astronomy. This interview was originally published in our sister magazine All About Space (Issue 119, July 2021).

Meredith Rawls

Dr Meredith Rawls is a stellar astronomer and software developer working as a research scientist with the Vera C. Rubin Observatory Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) group at the University of Washington. As a software developer, Rawls is involved in developing algorithms that can identify objects in telescope data that have changed, and characterize them accordingly. Her work also entails researching how low-Earth orbit satellites affect astronomy and what satellite operator companies can do to reduce their impact on the night sky.

The main thing is there are so many of them that are currently being launched and planned to be launched and they reflect sunlight so they can be really bright. The brightness actually surprised some of the satellite operators, they had not anticipated how bright their satellites were actually going to be. Astronomers were used to sometimes seeing satellites, but now it's an order of magnitude more and they're going to be showing up very commonly in observations from ground-based telescopes.

I tend to be very biased towards the ground-based optical astronomy because that's our human experience with the night sky and they're the main kind of observations that I was trained in as a student. But radio astronomy is maybe even going to be more severely impacted than optical astronomy. It's complicated.

Radio astronomers have been competing for years for a frequency spectrum, they have this national and international relations about who gets what frequencies on the radio spectrum, for example your mobile phone service, your WiFi, any gadget that transmits has to have approval. Radio astronomers have fought long and hard to make their presence known and say "we need this chunk of the spectrum because thats where Hydrogen emits, we can't change that", in the U.S. they go to lobbying meetings to make their voices heard, so there is already a presence of radio astronomers in some of these regulatory spaces.

The issue with growing numbers of low-Earth orbit satellite constellations is that one of the main goals they have is to send down high amounts of data for internet access so they'll be constantly beaming down loud radio signals down to Earth so people can get their internet connection. This is potentially going to cover a large amount of ground.

There are some things that they could do to try and lower the effects on radio astronomy, for example turning off their transmitters when they are over radio telescopes.

But the reality is that if you have located a set of frequencies that you are going to use, physically these waves spill over the edges, you cannot have a sharp cut off, it's just not how waves work. So even with the best intended regulations controlling what frequencies are being used by satellite companies, it is going to have some pretty serious effects on radio astronomy.

Actually that would be worse. It's a little complicated because you could think that maybe a lower orbit satellite would be brighter because it is closer, which is true but the trick is that it moves faster in a lower orbit because it has to not fall out of the sky. That means that when you are taking a picture it will move out of the way faster and the pixels won't linger long enough to make as bright of a streak in the image, which is better.

So I was personally disappointed that OneWeb decided to keep their satellites at a higher altitude, whereas SpaceX have been more willing to keep their satellites at lower altitudes. Though space debris will become an even bigger problem at these lower altitudes as the lower the orbit, the more crowded it gets.

SpaceX received additional backlash in September 2019, when the European Space Agency (ESA) announced that it had directed its Aeolus satellite to undertake evasive maneuvers and avoid crashing into "Starlink 44," one of the first 60 satellites in the megaconstellation. The agency took action after learning from the U.S. military that the probability of a collision was 1 in 1,000 10 times higher than ESA's threshold for conducting a collision-avoidance maneuver.

In August 2021, Hugh Lewis, the head of the Astronautics Research Group at the University of Southampton, U.K. and Europe's leading space debris expert, told Space.com that Starlink satellites represent the single main sources of collision risk in low Earth orbit.

According to computer models, at that time, Starlink satellites were involved every week in about 1,600 encounters between two spacecraft closer than 0.6 miles (1 kilometer). That's about 50% of all such incidents. This number rises with every new batch of satellites launched into space. By the time Starlink deploys all 12,000 satellites of its first-generation constellation it could reach 90%, Lewis said.

Lewis also expressed concerns that Starlink's operator SpaceX, a newcomer into the satellite business, is now the single most dominant player in the field whose decisions can affect the safety of all operations in low Earth orbit.

SpaceX plans to refresh the Starlink megaconstellation every five years with newer technology. At the end of their service, the old satellites will be steered into Earth's atmosphere where they will burn up. That is certainly commendable when it comes to space debris prevention, however, there is another problem.

The vast amount of satellites that will be burning in the otherwise pristine upper layers of the atmosphere could alter the atmospheric chemistry and have unforeseen consequences for life on the planet.

In a paper published in May 2021 in the journal Scientific Reports, Canadian researcher Aaron Boley said the aluminum the satellites are made of will produce aluminum oxide, also known as alumina, during burn-up. He warned that alumina is known to cause ozone depletion and could also alter the atmosphere's ability to reflect heat.

"Alumina reflects light at certain wavelengths and if you dump enough alumina into the atmosphere, you are going to create scattering and eventually change the albedo of the planet," Boley told Space.com.

That could lead to an out-of-control geoengineering experiment, a change in the Earth's climate balance. The effects of such alternations are currently unknown.

Karen Rosenlof, an atmospheric chemistry expert at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), told Space.com she too was concerned about the effects of the particles from the burning satellites in the atmosphere. Rosenlof has expertise in modeling the effects of geoengineering interventions.

David Fahey, the Director of NOAA's Chemical Sciences Laboratory, and Martin Ross, a physics and meteorology scientist at the Aerospace Corporation, both told Space.com that more research is urgently needed to understand the effects of burning increasing amounts of satellites in the atmosphere.

The problem, the scientists said, is that in those high layers of the atmosphere, the particles are likely going to stay forever. Boley said that while the number of satellites burning in the atmosphere will be considerably smaller than the number of meteorites, the chemical composition of the artificial objects is different, thus the presence of the products of their burning is something scientists know nothing about.

"We have 54 tonnes (60 tons) of meteoroid material coming in every day," Boley said. "With the first generation of Starlink, we can expect about 2 tonnes (2.2 tons) of dead satellites reentering Earth's atmosphere daily. But meteoroids are mostly rock, which is made of oxygen, magnesium and silicon. These satellites are mostly aluminum, which the meteoroids contain only in a very small amount, about 1%."

As the accumulation of those particles would increase over time, so would the intensity of the effects. It thus cannot be ruled out that over decades the pollution from burning megaconstellation satellites could lead to changes on a scale akin to what we are currently experiencing with fossil-fuel-induced climate change.

"Humans are exceptionally good at underestimating our ability to change the environment," said Boley. "There is this perception that there is no way that we can dump enough plastic into the ocean to make a difference. There is no way we can dump enough carbon into the atmosphere to make a difference. But here we are. We have a plastic pollution problem with the ocean, we have climate change ongoing as a result of our actions and our changing of the composition of the atmosphere and we are poised to make the same type of mistake by our use of space."

Starlink did not respond to Space.com requests for comment.

A Starlink satellite's lifespan can also be cut short by powerful geomagnetic storms.

On Feb. 3, 2022, a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket made a routine and successful launch of 49 Starlink satellites from NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida. But only a day later, a geomagnetic storm above Earth pushed up the density of the atmosphere, increasing the drag on the satellites and dooming the bulk of them to an early death.

"Preliminary analysis show the increased drag at the low altitudes prevented the satellites from leaving safe mode to begin orbit-raising maneuvers, and up to 40 of the satellites will reenter or already have reentered the Earth's atmosphere," SpaceX wrote in an update on Feb. 8, 2022.

Read more: Better space weather forecast could have saved SpaceX Starlink satellites from solar storm

SpaceX began launching an upgraded version of Starlink, called the V2 mini, onFebruary 27, 2023. The V2 minis serve as a precursor version to the company's full V2 design, whose larger design is intended to launch on SpaceX's yet-operational Starship rocket. In the interim, the V2 minis stand in as a measurable upgrade from Starlink's previous version.

Starlink V2 minis are more robust than the first generation, in both size and capability. According to SpaceX'ssocial media posts, the upgrades includeargon Hall thrustersfor a 2.4x and 1.5x boost in thrust and impulse, respectively, refitted phased array antennas, and E-band backhaul use capabilities that nearly quadruple Starlink's data capacity.

The full version V2 satellites won't launch until SpaceX's Starship is fully operational. When they do, the larger V2 satellites will possess an even higher data capacity than their predecessors, and the ability to provide services direct to cellular devices. SpaceX CEO Elon Musk and T-Mobile CEO Mike Sievert announced a deal between the two companies in August 2022, and plan to provide the service to T-Mobile customers once Starlink V2 begins to launch.

With the right equipment, access to Starlink internet can be achieved in remote locations within just a few minutes, making it a useful resource in emergencies.

According to a statement on Starlink's official website "Without the bounds of traditional ground infrastructure, Starlink can be deployed in a matter of minutes to support emergency responders in disaster scenarios."

"The Starlink team is proud to support and prioritize service for emergency responders around the globe and will continue to grow this support as our coverage areas expand." The statement continues.

The benefits of Starlink internet service in emergencies have already been demonstrated in Ukraine and Tonga.

Starlink, SpaceX's giant and ever-growing broadband constellation, has been a vital piece of Ukrainian communications infrastructure throughout the ongoing Russian invasion. Ukrainian government officials publicly requested Starlink terminals on Feb. 26, just two days after the invasion began, and the first ones arrived in the country on Feb. 28.

In early April, SpaceX and the U.S. Agency for International Development announced they had jointly delivered about 5,000 Starlink terminals to Ukraine, with SpaceX directly providing more than 3,000 of them. The number has grown considerably since then, to 25,000 or so, according to company founder and CEO Elon Musk.

The situation in Ukraine was not always smooth, as Musk noted in March 2022 that the Starlink terminals have been jammed near Ukraine conflict areas. The company was already working on an upgrade when Musk announced this, and he pledged a further pivot to cyber defense to keep the Starlinks operational.

In February 2022, at least 50 Starlink terminals were sent to the island nation of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The goal was to give its residents free Internet access, especially in remote villages. Tonga needed the terminals after suffering a massive volcano eruption and tsunami in January. At the time, SpaceX said the terminals will allow for communications to flow in some of the regions with the worst effects due to the eruption according to Reuters.

SpaceX has stated that it will work with organizations and space agencies to mitigate the impacts of its megaconstellation. And the company has tried to assuage astronomers' concerns over Starlink's effect on the night sky.

"SpaceX is absolutely committed to finding a way forward so our Starlink project doesn't impede the value of the research you all are undertaking," Patricia Cooper, SpaceX's vice president of satellite government affairs, told astronomers at a January 2020 meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Honolulu, Nature reported.

SpaceX has taken action to this effect. For example, recently launched Starlink satellites sport visors designed to prevent sunlight from glinting too brightly off their most reflective parts.

But the huge numbers of satellites in megaconstellations from SpaceX and other private space companies, such as OneWeb, suggest that light pollution and other issues may continue, and advocates have called for greater regulations from government agencies.

"Here is a gift for the leaders of the world, a task more non-partisan than any other which has come before: protect our skies," stargazer Arwen Rimmer wrote in The Space Review, a weekly online publication devoted to essays and commentary about space, in early 2020.

The current version of each Starlink satellite weighs 573 lbs. (260 kilograms) and is, according to Sky & Telescope magazine, roughly the size of a table.

Rather than sending internet signals through electric cables, which must be physically laid down to reach far-flung places, satellite internet works by beaming information through the vacuum of space, where it travels 47% faster than in fiber-optic cable, Business Insider reported.

Current satellite internet works using large spacecraft that orbit 22,236 miles (35,786 km) above a particular spot on Earth. But at that distance, there are generally significant time delays in sending and receiving data. By being closer to our planet and networking together, Starlink's satellites are meant to carry large amounts of information rapidly to any point on Earth, even over the oceans and in extremely hard-to-reach places where fiber-optic cables would be expensive to lay down.

Users on the ground access the broadband signals using a kit sold by SpaceX. The kit contains a small satellite dish with a mounting tripod, a wifi router, cables and a power supply, according to the company's website.

SpaceX has a dedicated website to order Starlink terminals. Go to the main page of the Starlink website and scroll down to the section that says "Order Now."

After plugging in your service address, you can see whether Starlink is available for your region. While pricing varies by region, a search for an address in Brooklyn in November 2022 gave a hardware price of $599.00, a one-time shipping and handling charge of $50.00, and a monthly service charge of $110.00.

Speeds are said to be much faster for many users in rural regions compared to local options, although again, this varies by region. "Users can expect to see download speeds between 100 Mb/s and 200 Mb/s, and latency as low as 20ms in most locations," the home page states.

Once your box arrives, you should see within it a Starlink kit that will allow you to connect to the Internet. A Starlink app, as well as a website user guide, are meant to guide you through the installation.

Explore Starlink satellites in more detail with this informative video from SpaceX. Read how astrophysicist Ethan Siegel thinks SpaceX can fix the damage Starlink satellites are causing to astronomy, published in Forbes.

NOIRLab, Report of the SATCON2 Workshop: Executive Summary, July 16, 2021 https://noirlab.edu/public/media/archives/techdocs/pdf/techdoc031.pdf

Boley, A., Byers, M. Satellite mega-constellations create risks in Low Earth Orbit, the atmosphere and on Earth, Scientific Reports, 20 May, 2021 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-89909-7

McDowell, J. The Low Earth Orbit Satellite Population and Impacts of the SpaceX Starlink Constellation, The Astrophysical Journal Letters, April 6 2020 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016/meta

Massey R. et al. The challenge of satellite megaconstellations, Nature Astronomy, 6 November, 2020 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-020-01224-9

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Starlink satellites: Facts, tracking and impact on astronomy - Space.com

Best binoculars 2024: Jump Menu

With a pair of the best binoculars, you'll be ready to view distant wildlife and sporting events in bright clarity. A good pair can even be taken stargazing, although those looking to use them for this purpose will want to look for large front lenses (known as the objective lens diameter) to soak in as much light from distant stars as possible, along with high magnification to bring celestial objects into focus.

At Space.com our experts know what they like in a pair of binoculars in terms of specs and features, and we've tested them out in the field to bring you all the best options for all different purposes and budgets. A quality pair of binoculars will be comfortable to hold, easy to transport (even more so with the best compact binoculars) and safe to use in all weather conditions. You'll find nothing less in this guide.

Binoculars tend to be more portable and affordable than telescopes, making them a good choice for casual stargazing and wildlife watching. Those who plan to get more serious about their stargazing will benefit from investing in one of the best telescopes, and for those who want to photograph the night sky, we also have guides to the best cameras for astrophotography and best lenses for astrophotography.

If you're looking to get your kids involved, we also have a guide to the best binoculars for kids that are suited to smaller hands.

Dr Gemma Lavender

A contributing expert to Space.com, Live Science,All About Spaceand more, Gemma is the author of several books including 'Quantum Physics in Minutes'. She holds a degree in physical sciences, a Master's in astrophysics and a PhD in computational astrophysics and became fellow of theRoyal Astronomical Societyin 2011. Gemma is also the Communications and Outreach Office at theEuropean Space Agency.

Best binoculars overall

Canon 10x42L IS WP binoculars

Best binoculars overall

The finest stargazing binoculars money can buy with in-built stabilization. As close to perfection as youll get for handheld astronomy.

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Best for affordable stargazing

Celestron Nature DX 12x56

Best for affordable stargazing

They offer bright and clear views, with a wide aperture for gathering light and magnification that is excellent for stargazing and wildlife spotting.

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Best binoculars under $300

Celestron TrailSeeker 8x42 binocular

Best binoculars under $300

The TrailSeeker 8x42s minimalist design makes them a hugely more attractive option than large and heavy deep-sky astronomy-centric binoculars.

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Best budget binoculars

Celestron UpClose G2 10x50 Binocular

Best budget binoculars

Best thought of as a great value pair of entry-level binoculars for all-round use and for occasional night sky views.

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Best for moon views

Celestron SkyMaster Pro 15x70 Binocular

Best for moon views

These binoculars give a superb stargazing experience at a reasonable price. Fantastic magnification for lunar viewing.

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Best mid-range model

Vortex 10x50 Crossfire HD Binocular

Best mid-range model

The pair you need if a wide field of view and a good sturdy build quality top your brief.

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Best family binoculars

Best family binoculars

Surprisingly good optics make these attractive to adults and kids alike. Considering what and who they're for, for the price, they're hard to beat.

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Best for magnification

Celestron SkyMaster 25x100 Binocular

Best for magnification

See the universe close up and in stereo, but dont plan to hike with them as they're big and heavy.

Read more below

Image 1 of 4

Best binoculars overall: The finest stargazing binoculars money can buy with in-built stabilization

Magnification: 10x

Objective lens diameter: 42mm

Field of view: 6.5-degrees

Eye relief: 14.5mm (0.57-inch)

Weight: 39.2 oz / 1.1kg

Optical Image Stabilizer

Rugged build quality

Lots of eye relief

Bulky size

Lens caps are loose

AAA batteries required

Buy it if

You want the best of the best:Other than price and size, we really couldn't find major fault with these binoculars we gave them 5 stars in our review.

Don't buy it if:

You're a casual user:These are an expensive pair of powerful binos, so if you only ever do casual stargazing or wildlife spotting, they'll be overkill.

You want a lightweight binocular:These are undeniably heavy and bulky, so if weight is important to you, we'd suggest looking elsewhere.

The bottom line

Canon 10x42L IS WP binoculars: They're not perfect, but theyre as close as youll get for hand-held astronomy. They're an outstanding choice for super-steady stargazing thanks to their image stabilization, waterproof design and large objective lenses.

For hand-held astronomy, the Canon 10x42L IS WP binoculars are among the very best you can get. Their standout feature is Canon's Optical Image Stabilization (IS). This clever technology uses gyroscope motion sensors to detect arm movement and a vari-angle prism to correct it by up to 0.8 degrees. With the push of a button, you can eliminate hand shakes and get a steady image, perfect for long viewing sessions when your arms might get tired.

These binoculars use premium L-series glass with Canon's multi-layered anti-reflective lens coating (known as 'Super Spectra') to increase light transmission and reduce lens flare for a bright and clear view that offers accurate color reproduction. The view we got through these binoculars during our Canon 10x42L IS WP binoculars review is incredibly sharp with no chromatic aberration, which is just what you need for observing pin-point stars.

The downside of these high-tech binoculars is that the IS system is quite power-hungry, so it's worth making sure you take plenty of spare AAA batteries along on your trip. We also weren't wholly satisfied with the accessories provided with these binoculars, especially considering the price point. We found that the one-piece lens caps struggled to stay in place, and we thought the carry case was a bit basic and flimsy, so you might want to upgrade it. But overall, these are still the best stargazing binoculars on our list thanks to the astronomy-centric glass and clever image stabilization feature.

Today's best Canon 10x42L IS WP deals

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Best optical performance: Some of the best optics on the market in an easily transportable roof prism design

Magnification: 10x

Objective lens diameter: 42mm

Field of view: 6.9-degrees

Eye relief: 17mm (0.67-inch)

Weight: 1.5 oz / 680g

Highly portable

Sharp views across the whole field of view

No image stabilization

Negligible color fringing

Buy it if

You want some of the best on the market:If you're prepared to pay for them, these binoculars will last you for years to come and provide stunning optical performance and a premium finish.

Don't buy it if:

You specifically want image stabilization: This may be the only thing missing from this pair of binos, so if that's important to you, there are other options out there that do have it.

The bottom line

Nikon Monarch HG 10x42A premium package that comes at a premium price though not ideal for beginner binocular users unless you have deep pockets or a real passion for wildlife or a similar interest that you plan on pursuing for years to come.

In our Nikon Monarch HG 10x42 review, we loved these so much that we found them hard to fault. These binoculars have excellent optics, with almost no color distortion. This is because Nikon uses special coatings on all glass parts and includes Extra-low Dispersion (ED) glass. They also have a wide field of view and technology that keeps the entire image sharp, making them ideal for wildlife watchers.

These binoculars have a slim design with a roof prism, making them sleek and easy to carry in a coat pocket or around your neck. Even though they weigh 680g, they are comfortable to use for long periods because of the soft and comfortable neck strap.

While they do come with a higher price tag because of their exceptional optics and quality finish, we believe they provide excellent value for those who can afford them. These binoculars are completely waterproof and fog-resistant because they're sealed and filled with nitrogen. You can feel confident using them in any weather, indoors or outdoors, making them especially useful for your stargazing sessions.

Today's best Nikon Monarch HG 10x42 deals

Image 1 of 5

Best for affordable stargazing: A wide aperture and 12x magnification make these excellent for observing the cosmos

Magnification: 12x

Objective lens diameter: 56mm

Field of view: 5.5 degrees

Eye relief: 16mm (0.63-inch)

Weight: 36.2 oz / 1028g

Excellent build quality

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Best binoculars 2024: Top picks for stargazing, wildlife, birding and more - Space.com

Albert Einstein was already a recognized physicist when he published his theory of general relativity, or gravitation, in 1916. Three years later, he catapulted into an international celebrity when relativitys first experimental proof came from a solar eclipse. Credit: Wikimedia Commons.

In the past quarter century, astronomical observations have led to discoveries that have literally transformed our conception of the universe.

One such transformation occurred in 1998, when dark energy a mysterious force thought to be driving the accelerated expansion of the cosmos was discovered. Researchers measured that acceleration through observations made by observatories including the Hubble Space Telescope of roughly 50 type Ia supernovae, the explosions of white dwarfs, which always occur under the same conditions and thus always have the same brightness, regardless of distance. What astronomers saw was that more distant supernovae of this kind appeared dimmer than expected, indicating they were farther away than they should be and hence, the universes expansion is accelerating. Astronomers have subsequently determined that dark energy is the main thing there is, comprising about 70 percent of the universes total mass-energy content.

Another transformation in our view of the universe: In 2015, gravitational waves produced by the violent collision of two distant black holes were intercepted for the first time by the LIGO Observatorys twin detectors in Louisiana and Washington. Each of these L-shaped instruments has arms 2.5 miles (4 kilometers) long, with mirrors on each end. They are sensitive enough to perceive minute variations in distance between those mirrors of just 1/10,000 the width of a proton.

And in 2019, the Event Horizon Telescope a coordinated network of radio telescopes spread across the globe released an image of the silhouette of a giant black hole (with a mass of 6.5 billion Suns), located in the middle of the M87 galaxy 55 million light-years away.

These were all incredible accomplishments, the products of tremendous ingenuity and mind-blowing technology, which allowed measurements of unparalleled precision. Spectacular as these achievements were, there is another way to learn about the universe that has, in many instances, been equally potent. This approach does not require billion-dollar facilities or cutting-edge technical wizardry. In fact, it can often be carried out with a paper and pencil and, sometimes, not even that, as a portion of this work can be carried out by pure thought.

The magical tool were referring to here is mathematics a subject taught to children as young as those in kindergarten and even preschool. Many of us are familiar with arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and perhaps even calculus, yet may not appreciate the broad sweep and power of mathematics.

Lets consider the three discoveries discussed above, starting with dark energy. In November 1915, Albert Einstein presented equations for his new theory of gravity, called general relativity. In 1917, he published work applying this idea not only to the motions of planets around the sun, but to the universe as a whole a notion that contributed immensely to the field of cosmology. But for his equations to make reflect the current state of the universe, Einstein needed to insert an additional term representing a repulsive force, called lambda (), to keep the universe from collapsing in on itself due to gravity. For physicists and mathematicians who work with these equations today, lambda represents dark energy.

Although he was working some 81 years before the discovery of dark energy, Einsteins additional term allowed scientists over the intervening years to mathematically experiment with a range of possible universes universes that expand or contract, alternate between the two, or just stay the same (the option that Einstein originally subscribed to). In the 1920s, astronomers including Edwin Hubble secured evidence that our universe was indeed expanding. And by the late 1990s, a new generation of investigators had revealed that this expansion is getting faster and faster.

Gravitational waves were also predicted by Einstein, who did so in 1916, based on the equations of general relativity hed formulated a year earlier. However, he doubted that such waves could actually be detected. In work carried out in the 1950s and 60s, mathematician Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat proved that Einsteins equations can give rise to gravitational waves and that such waves travel at a finite speed the speed of light. Some of Choquet-Bruhats ideas were later used to figure out what a gravitational-wave signal would look like knowledge that contributed to their successful detection, which was announced in 2016 after a year of careful vetting, 100 years after Einsteins initial prediction.

You may be sensing a trend here, and black holes dont buck it. Although they had been first described in 1793, it wasnt until a couple of months after the publication of Einsteins 1915 paper introducing the equations of general relativity that physicist Karl Schwarzschild found a mathematical solution that showed what space (or actually space-time, the four-dimensional fabric of the universe) would look like both outside and inside a non-rotating spherical star. Schwarzschild showed that if enough mass were packed into a small enough radius, the density and pressure at the stars center would approach infinity. He had described, at least on paper, an object that 52 years later would come to be called a black hole.

In 1963, mathematician Roy Kerr solved the Einstein equations for rotating black holes the kind of black holes that occur in nature, a no celestial bodies that we know of are completely motionless. Two years later, mathematician Roger Penrose demonstrated, through an argument based on geometry and the related field of topology, the conditions that give rise to singularities places such as the centers of black holes, where conditions are so extreme that known laws of physics break down.

Seeing is believing, as the saying goes, and in 2019, scientists released the first picture of a black holes immediate exterior, a finding that silenced most of the remaining skeptics. Astronomers today study black holes across the universe, while mathematicians are gaining further insights about these enigmatic entities. Researchers have shown, for instance, that its theoretically possible for black holes to exist in higher dimensions than the four of our familiar space-time, as well as have bizarre, exotic shapes. Two mathematicians have recently proven that so-called extremal black holes, which have the maximum spin or maximum charge allowable and do not give off Hawking radiation, can exist in nature despite a law developed 60 years ago by physicists John Bardeen, Brandon Carter, and Stephen Hawking that ruled them out. This speaks to the fact that laws in physics can be overturned, whereas rigorously proven mathematical theorems can last forever.

Its probably worth ending on a few words about the equations at the heart of all this. The gravitational theory Einstein put forth 109 years ago was truly revolutionary, putting forth a concept of the universe wholly different from the one it supplanted. According to Einsteins theory, gravity was not an attractive force conveyed through some unknown mechanism between massive objects, as imagined by Isaac Newton in the late 1600s. Instead, massive objects like the Sun, Einstein said, curve space-time around them, and it is this curvature that keeps smaller objects (say, our solar systems planets) within their gravitational sway. The curvature of a surface defines its precise shape or geometry. Einstein used that concept to show that the force we call gravity a phenomenon that sculpts the universe on the largest scales is actually a consequence of geometry. Expressed more simply, one might say that gravity is geometry.

That statement alone should provide some indication as to the influence and scope of mathematics. Math is far more than just the language of the physical world, as is often said. Rather than using math to describe the physical world, were coming to realize that the physical world, at its core, is fundamentally mathematical.

As to why thats the case, we may never know. But its a mystery that will not dissuade mathematicians from pursuing their craft and uncovering more secrets along the way.

Steve Nadis (a former Astronomy contributing editor) and Shing-Tung Yau (a professor of mathematics at Tsinghua University and an emeritus professor at Harvard University) are coauthors of The Gravity of Math: How Geometry Rules the Universe (Basic Books, 2024).

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How we can understand our universe through math - Astronomy Magazine