This year marks the centennial of the 1917 Immigration Act, which specified several categories of undesirables barred from entering the United States (such as idiots, epileptics, and anyone mentally or physically defective). Its most striking provision, however, was a total ban on immigration from a geographic area designated the Asiatic Barred Zone. Whereas European migrants were welcome if they did not tick any of the undesirable boxes and could pass a literacy test, no one from the Asia-Pacific zone, regardless of education or class, was permitted. The act expanded the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 to counter immigration from the Orient comprehensively.
Since President Trump announced Executive Order 13769 on January 27, barring nationals of seven Muslim-majority countries from entering the United States, critics have outlined the parallels between Trumps order and a trajectory of previous legislation aimed at curtailing the presence of various racial, ethnic, and religious groups in the United States. Although the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, the 1924 Johnson-Reed Immigration Act, Executive Order 9066 (sanctioning Japanese internment), and, more recently, NSEERS (a variant of a Muslim registry) are key laws, the advent of the Asiatic Barred Zone is particularly relevant for our contemporary moment.
Whereas the nineteenth century was characterized by attempts to curtail the yellow peril of China, the 1917 law was a response to demographic shifts at home. The Pacific Northwest, in particular, had seen outbreaks of antiSouth Asian violence. As the historian Erika Lee explained in the Pacific Historical Review, South Asian migrants first came to Canada as part of a complex migration pattern that crossed imperial and continental lines, but later moved to the United States, attracted by higher wages.
Their reception was not kind. Newspapers reported in sensationalist fashion that these dusky Asiatics and Hindu hordes posed a bigger threat to job security and the cultural fabric than Japanese or Chinese laborers. It wasnt long before national security became the proxy for discussing the issue, a compound of racism and economic anxiety. A 1906 letter writer to the Puget Sound American suggested that the Hindus were very well-versed in firearms. This, combined with their bad code of morals, would inevitably lead to innocent people getting butchered. Hindus, however, was an erroneous designation, as most South Asian migrants were Sikh. The firearms were the result of these particular migrants roles as police officers, as many initially came to Canada from Hong Kong after having served in the British imperial forces.
However, the U.S. is not the only country with a long history of exclusionary policies. American concerns about the rise of Asian immigration, eventually resulting in the 1917 act, were linked to measures taken across the continent. As Lee notes, Canadas 1908 Continuous Journey Law marked a significant shift; as its title suggests, the law only allowed entry to individuals coming directly from their homeland. With no direct steamboat service between India and Canada, the law in effect prohibited all immigration from India. Instead, South Asians chose Seattle and San Francisco as their destinations.
Trumps executive orderalsoconjures the ghost of the1908 Canadian Continuous Journey Law.
Trumps executive order conjures the ghost of this Canadian law. It targets Muslims without explicitly stating sothough the White Houses definition has been muddyusing the guise of national security to explain why the seven countries were selected.
The Canadian parliaments linguistic acrobatics in excluding South Asian British subjects, the manufactured principle of continuous journey, allowed it to avoid accusations of overt discrimination, but the measure did not fool anyone. Whereas boats from Europe made the trip across the Atlantic directly, the journey from the British Raj was so long that it could not be completed without a stopover in Hawaii or Japan. In the most notorious, heartbreaking example of the regulations consequences, 356 passengers of the steamship Komagata Maru, sailing from Hong Kong, were refused entry and eventually escorted out of Vancouvers harbor. After the ship returned to Calcutta, riots and subsequent violence claimed the lives of many passengers. This past May, the Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau formally apologized in the House of Commons for the prejudice faced by the passengers and by South Asian communities as a whole.
The same prejudice awaited in the United States. With the increased arrival of migrants from all over Asiaand, after the Canadian ban, of South Asians in particularconcerns over national security and racial purity ensured that the Chinese Exclusion Act no longer sufficed in the eyes of many Americans. On the West Coast especially, people demanded immigration reform.
Producing urgency for such measures, and further fanning the flames of xenophobia, were cultural texts that vilified Asians and cautioned against their economic voraciousness. Author Jack London, in a series of science fiction stories, warned that China was to be feared not in war, but in commerce, and that its population was increasing so quickly that there would soon be more Chinese in existence than white-skinned people. As the literary scholar John N. Swift notes, Londons writing is reflective of anxiety about the precarity of white racial supremacy, articulated particularly through fear of Asian sexual reproduction. Racialized subjects were seen as predatory, spreading disease, and as reproducing at an alarming rate, thereby threatening the racial status and purity of whites.
With advances in genetic science, fears about public hygiene and the risk that foreigners posed intensified. In The Unparalleled Invasion (1910), London wove all these strands together by writing about a China unprecedented in its birth rate, its inhabitants carriers of a fatal plague germ. In the story, the West resorts to biological warfare to halt Asian expansion. In reality, the United States closed its doors.
Asians were imagined as aliens, perpetually foreign to the United States.
As the literary scholar Stephen Hong Sohn argues, these yellow-peril fictions, such as Londons, did not emerge in a vacuum. After Japan became the first Asian nation to defeat a Western power in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War, Asia increasingly was seen as a threat. Asians were imagined as aliens, spatially and temporally removed, perpetually foreign to the United States. Sohn suggests that this view remains a force to draw upon to allegorize racial tension and exclusion, resulting either in movies like Blade Runner and The Matrix that depict orientalized futures, or in more subversive or complex articulations by Asian-American authors like Karen Tei Yamashita or Larissa Lai.
In 1917, such othering provided the impetus for overhauling immigration policy. Rather than regulating immigration, the Asiatic Barred Zone catapulted the restriction of immigration to the top of the national agenda. To say that there are echoes of that law in the current moment would be an understatement. Even though anti-Asian racism is at the margins of narratives about the Trump administration, his myriad statements on China most notably his assertion that the country is ripping off the United States and stealing jobsare well known. Trump also zeroed in on Japan as an economic threat. Most tellingly, at a rally in Tampa, Florida, Trump accused India, China, Singapore, and Mexico of the greatest jobs theft in the history of the world. This rhetoric, combined with his America First policy, invokes the specter of Asian aggression and dominance once again.
The Asiatic Barred Zone legislation shaped national attitudes on race. The barred zone remained in effect until 1952, and restrictions on migration from Asia were not lifted until 1965, when Lyndon B. Johnson called race-based immigration policies a cruel and enduring wrong in the conduct of the American nation. Asian-exclusion laws were a transnational reality; Canada and Latin American countries also adopted such policies.
The effects are still felt today. The startling reality is that, in 2017, debates over who belongs and does not belong, and who is worthy of admission, still employ ethnic, racial, and religious terms. These debates have not only remained unresolved, but also reasserted themselves with even greater force, both domestically and internationally. We question the humanity of millions, both explicitly and implicitly, by challenging rights or withholding aid.
By: Erika Lee
Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 76, No. 4 (November 2007), pp. 537-562
University of California Press
By: John N. Swift
American Literary Realism, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Fall, 2002), pp. 59-71
University of Illinois Press
By: Stephen Hong Sohn
MELUS, Vol. 33, No. 4, Alien/Asian (Winter, 2008), pp. 5-22
Oxford University Press on behalf of Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States (MELUS)
By: Aimee Bahng
MELUS, Vol. 33, No. 4, Alien/Asian (Winter, 2008), pp. 123-144
Oxford University Press on behalf of Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States (MELUS)
Comments are closed.
View post:
The 1917 Immigration Act That Presaged Trump's Muslim Ban - JSTOR Daily
- biological weapon | Britannica.com [Last Updated On: June 12th, 2016] [Originally Added On: June 12th, 2016]
- Biological warfare - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [Last Updated On: June 12th, 2016] [Originally Added On: June 12th, 2016]
- Germ Warfare Against America: Part IIIb - U.S. Government ... [Last Updated On: June 12th, 2016] [Originally Added On: June 12th, 2016]
- Germ Warfare | Definition of Germ Warfare by Merriam-Webster [Last Updated On: June 13th, 2016] [Originally Added On: June 13th, 2016]
- The History Of Germ Warfare - Very Long, Very Deadly [Last Updated On: June 17th, 2016] [Originally Added On: June 17th, 2016]
- Germ Warfare | Germ Warfare Definition by Merriam-Webster [Last Updated On: June 19th, 2016] [Originally Added On: June 19th, 2016]
- History of biological warfare - Wikipedia, the free ... [Last Updated On: June 28th, 2016] [Originally Added On: June 28th, 2016]
- Colloidal Silver and Biological (Germ) Warfare [Last Updated On: June 30th, 2016] [Originally Added On: June 30th, 2016]
- Coconut Oil: Germ Warfare! | Underground Wellness [Last Updated On: July 3rd, 2016] [Originally Added On: July 3rd, 2016]
- Coconut Oil: Germ Warfare! | Underground Wellness [Last Updated On: July 5th, 2016] [Originally Added On: July 5th, 2016]
- Articles about Germ Warfare - latimes [Last Updated On: July 14th, 2016] [Originally Added On: July 14th, 2016]
- "M*A*S*H" Germ Warfare (TV Episode 1972) - IMDb [Last Updated On: July 29th, 2016] [Originally Added On: July 29th, 2016]
- Germ Warfare Against America: Part I What Is Gulf War ... [Last Updated On: August 21st, 2016] [Originally Added On: August 21st, 2016]
- Clouds of Secrecy: The Army's Germ Warfare Tests Over ... [Last Updated On: September 8th, 2016] [Originally Added On: September 8th, 2016]
- Germ Warfare - No Sweat [Last Updated On: September 29th, 2016] [Originally Added On: September 29th, 2016]
- Unit 731 - Wikipedia [Last Updated On: November 14th, 2016] [Originally Added On: November 14th, 2016]
- Germ warfare - mutant bugs could wipe out human life [Last Updated On: January 26th, 2017] [Originally Added On: January 26th, 2017]
- Germ warfare: the battle for the key to modern vaccines - The Guardian [Last Updated On: February 7th, 2017] [Originally Added On: February 7th, 2017]
- Germ Warfare - Zip06.com [Last Updated On: February 18th, 2017] [Originally Added On: February 18th, 2017]
- 'Ideation' is complex, convoluted, not-so-funny satire - Marinscope Community Newspapers [Last Updated On: February 24th, 2017] [Originally Added On: February 24th, 2017]
- Biopreparat - Wikipedia [Last Updated On: February 24th, 2017] [Originally Added On: February 24th, 2017]
- The Vaccine Race: How Scientists Used Human Cells to Combat ... - The Guardian [Last Updated On: February 28th, 2017] [Originally Added On: February 28th, 2017]
- We're 'in touch' every day with things that can make us sick - Williamsport Sun-Gazette [Last Updated On: February 28th, 2017] [Originally Added On: February 28th, 2017]
- Killen Church Youth Taking Out Germs - courierjournal [Last Updated On: February 28th, 2017] [Originally Added On: February 28th, 2017]
- Getting ready for a global pandemic - Amandala [Last Updated On: March 1st, 2017] [Originally Added On: March 1st, 2017]
- Ed Vasicek: The ever-surfacing future has arrived - Kokomo Tribune [Last Updated On: March 2nd, 2017] [Originally Added On: March 2nd, 2017]
- A human pinball in a germ warfare experiment - Varsity Online [Last Updated On: March 7th, 2017] [Originally Added On: March 7th, 2017]
- US Navy Film Reveals Crazy Cold War Chemical Weapons Plans - The National Interest Online (blog) [Last Updated On: March 12th, 2017] [Originally Added On: March 12th, 2017]
- John Wayne: Stalin's Target - The Liberty Conservative [Last Updated On: March 17th, 2017] [Originally Added On: March 17th, 2017]
- Sweden preparing nuclear fallout bunkers across the country amid fear of Russian war - The Sun [Last Updated On: March 21st, 2017] [Originally Added On: March 21st, 2017]
- Valley Hawks, Fighting Poets, others who will replace Lord Jeff? - Amherst Bulletin [Last Updated On: March 23rd, 2017] [Originally Added On: March 23rd, 2017]
- Base X: The Isle of Anthrax - Discover Magazine (blog) [Last Updated On: April 2nd, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 2nd, 2017]
- Amherst College announces the Mammoths as first official mascot ... - Boston.com [Last Updated On: April 5th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 5th, 2017]
- If Assad doesn't suffer for using chems, the whole world pays - New York Post [Last Updated On: April 7th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 7th, 2017]
- Letter: Protect the public health officials who protect us - Republican Eagle [Last Updated On: April 7th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 7th, 2017]
- Could The Global Community Coexist With A Nuclear Pyongyang? - Daily Caller [Last Updated On: April 7th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 7th, 2017]
- Geoffrey Norman: What Next? After The Syrian Strike - Caledonian Record [Last Updated On: April 10th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 10th, 2017]
- The superpower's dilemma - The Guardian (Australia) [Last Updated On: April 12th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 12th, 2017]
- This Day in History - Jamaica Observer [Last Updated On: April 12th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 12th, 2017]
- Creative Secrets From The Advantages Product Video Winner - Advertising Specialty Institute (press release) [Last Updated On: April 14th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 14th, 2017]
- Mar-a-Lago Kitchen Doubles As Germ Warfare Research Lab, Say Big Gubmint 'Health Inspectors' - Wonkette (blog) [Last Updated On: April 14th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 14th, 2017]
- Trump like all the rest - Washington Times [Last Updated On: April 17th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 17th, 2017]
- WWII: Doolittle Raid Doomed Japanese Empire - Scout [Last Updated On: April 17th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 17th, 2017]
- Reader's View: 'Continual warfare' needs to end - Lake Geneva Regional News [Last Updated On: April 19th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 19th, 2017]
- South Korea Should Give U.S. Troops the Boot - MWC News (satire) (registration) (blog) [Last Updated On: April 25th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 25th, 2017]
- Why Does North Korea Want Nukes? | Global Research - Centre for ... - Center for Research on Globalization [Last Updated On: April 25th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 25th, 2017]
- Plastics will be part of solutions in the future - Plastics News [Last Updated On: April 27th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 27th, 2017]
- How US presidents prepare for the end of the world - Washington Post [Last Updated On: April 28th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 28th, 2017]
- Endless Atrocities: The US Role in Creating the North Korean Fortress-State - Center for Research on Globalization [Last Updated On: April 28th, 2017] [Originally Added On: April 28th, 2017]
- What Did You Do During the Great Chemical War, Grandpa? - Bloomberg [Last Updated On: May 2nd, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 2nd, 2017]
- We're The Rats: Theo Anthony's film-essay "Rat Film" frames what's wrong with Baltimore through its vermin - Baltimore City Paper [Last Updated On: May 4th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 4th, 2017]
- Stan Statham: My take on biological weapons - Red Bluff Daily News [Last Updated On: May 4th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 4th, 2017]
- Book World: How US presidents prepare for the end of the world - The Edwardsville Intelligencer [Last Updated On: May 6th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 6th, 2017]
- Book review: How U.S. presidents prepare for the end of the world - Pocono Record [Last Updated On: May 6th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 6th, 2017]
- Zika a virus transferable to primates - Valley morning Star [Last Updated On: May 9th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 9th, 2017]
- When Posters Were the Samizdat of the Lower East Side - New York Times [Last Updated On: May 18th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 18th, 2017]
- The True Story of Brainwashing and How It Shaped America - Smithsonian [Last Updated On: May 23rd, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 23rd, 2017]
- Doolittle raid gave America a boost - Nevada Appeal [Last Updated On: May 28th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 28th, 2017]
- Greatness and sliced bread: a match gone stale - Toledo Blade [Last Updated On: May 28th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 28th, 2017]
- Cyber-attacks - Kuwait Times | Kuwait Times - Kuwait Times [Last Updated On: May 30th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 30th, 2017]
- Ian Mulgrew: B.C. Law Society boosters of the Begbie brush-off - Edmonton Journal [Last Updated On: May 30th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 30th, 2017]
- Museum honoring San Jose author of 'Rape of Nanking' Iris Chang opens in China - The Mercury News [Last Updated On: May 30th, 2017] [Originally Added On: May 30th, 2017]
- Ian Mulgrew: B.C. Law Society boosters of the Begbie brush-off - The Province [Last Updated On: June 1st, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 1st, 2017]
- Nuclear war: the US took a highly bureaucratic response to preparing for it - The Australian Financial Review [Last Updated On: June 9th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 9th, 2017]
- Shoemaker: Seeing a tragedy or a mere statistic? - MetroWest Daily News [Last Updated On: June 11th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 11th, 2017]
- LETTER: Process of forgetting simply facilitated - The Guardian [Last Updated On: June 14th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 14th, 2017]
- 'New' way to look at smallpox - Fiji Times [Last Updated On: June 15th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 15th, 2017]
- I meant every word - Fort Madison Daily Democrat [Last Updated On: June 15th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 15th, 2017]
- GERM WARFARE - Carpet Cleaning and Upholstery Cleaning [Last Updated On: June 15th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 15th, 2017]
- What Do We Celebrate? - The Runner [Last Updated On: June 16th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 16th, 2017]
- We'll pass on the Liberal Lollapalooza - Net Newsledger [Last Updated On: June 18th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 18th, 2017]
- Whom Are You Fooling?The Jewish Press | Rabbi Dani Staum | 30 ... - The Jewish Press - JewishPress.com [Last Updated On: June 24th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 24th, 2017]
- Military Tested Germ Warfare on San Francisco and Other ... [Last Updated On: June 28th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 28th, 2017]
- The case for keeping 'Langevin Block' - Macleans.ca [Last Updated On: June 30th, 2017] [Originally Added On: June 30th, 2017]
- The Story of the Deadly Anthrax Outbreak Russia Wanted to Hide ... - Scout [Last Updated On: July 8th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 8th, 2017]
- Documents Expose How Hollywood Promotes War on Behalf of the Pentagon, CIA and NSA - Center for Research on Globalization [Last Updated On: July 9th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 9th, 2017]
- The Sverdlovsk Incident Was One of the World's Worst Chemical Weapons Mishaps - War Is Boring [Last Updated On: July 9th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 9th, 2017]
- How infectious diseases have shaped our culture, habits and language - The Conversation AU [Last Updated On: July 14th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 14th, 2017]
- For $5500, Could This 1995 Ford F350 Crewcab Dually Really Make America Great Again? - Jalopnik [Last Updated On: July 14th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 14th, 2017]
- 70s Rewind: In THE OMEGA MAN, Charlton Heston Tries to Save the Planet - ScreenAnarchy (blog) [Last Updated On: July 17th, 2017] [Originally Added On: July 17th, 2017]