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Introduction Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc.

The geographic region Oceania includes roughly 10,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean, mainly in the western and central portions. Oceania covers about 20 million square miles (50 million square kilometers), or roughly one third of the enormous Pacific Ocean. Yet the total land area of the islands is very smallonly some 324,000 square miles (840,000 square kilometers). Papua New Guinea and New Zealand represent nine tenths of the total. The other islands cover merely 41,000 square miles (106,000 square kilometers)about the extent of Portugal or a third of Ecuador. Most of the islands appear simply as isolated specks on a map of the ocean, and some are mere rocks. Some of the islands are crowded with people, but others are total wilderness. About 14 million people live in the region, nearly three quarters of them in New Zealand and Papua New Guinea.

Numerous Pacific islands are beyond the limits of Oceania as it is normally conceived. Many geographers consider Australia to be a part of Oceania, but others exclude it. This article does not include Australia (and its adjoining islands) for reasons of culture and geography. The term Oceania usually also excludes countries near the Asian mainland, such as Indonesia, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Japan, and the smaller islands those countries control. East Timor has cultural affinities with some Oceanian islands, but it is not discussed here because of its location west of New Guinea. The eastern Pacific has very few islands. Apart from Easter Island and a couple of small uninhabited islets, the remaining few islands of the eastern Pacific are usually excluded from Oceania.

Oceania is usually said to consist of three large geographic areasPolynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia. As with any generalization, however, this three-way division of Oceania is somewhat inaccurate: it was created by Europeans concerned with their own exploration, trade, missionary activities, and racial relationsand it ignored many cultural and historical details. Yet it helps to divide the region for quick reference, especially when considering differences in language and geography.

The name Polynesia means many islands; it applies mainly to islands with similar cultures that lie in the central Pacific. Among the countries of Polynesia are New Zealand, Tuvalu, Tonga, and Samoa. Also included are Frances overseas territory Wallis and Futuna and overseas country French Polynesia, which incorporates the Tuamotu, Gambier, Society, Austral, Leeward, and Marquesas islands. The New Zealand dependencies of Tokelau, the Cook Islands, and Niue; the United States dependencies of American Samoa, Jarvis, Palmyra, and Kingman Reef, among others; and the British-controlled Pitcairn Island are also part of Polynesia. Chile administers Easter Island, and Hawaii is a U.S. state.

The name Micronesia means small islands. Among the regions sovereign countries are Palau, Nauru, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands. Kiribati lies largely within Micronesia, but its eastern Phoenix and Line Islands jut into Polynesia. Also in Micronesia are the United States territories of Wake Island and Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands, a commonwealth in association with the United States.

Melanesia means islands inhabited by Blacksa term introduced by racial-minded Europeans, though not all Melanesians have dark skin. Among the independent nations of Melanesia are Fiji, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. Melanesia also includes Papua New Guinea, which occupies the eastern part of the enormous island of New Guinea, as well as the Bismarck Archipelago and other nearby islands. The western part of New Guinea is often excluded from Oceania because it is part of Indonesia. New Caledonia is a French overseas country.

Within the popular imagination of many Westerners, the Oceanian islands have been associated with visions of an earthly paradise of crystal blue waters, white beaches, coconut palms, and smiling, subservient natives. Such images have been reinforced by popular films, romance novels, and glossy travel magazines and tourist-oriented Internet sites. There are some elements of truth to those images, in that the islands beauty is often breathtaking. However, real life in Oceania is more complex and contradictory, and at times quite difficultwith the picturesque landscape, the poetic quality of the ocean, and the wretchedness of life here, as the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski wrote in the early 1900s. Problems on some islands include tropical diseases, drought, typhoons, volcanic eruptions, and stinging insects, as well as social problems such as unemployment, low-paying jobs, harsh working conditions, violence, and corruption.

Oceania is a physically diverse region, with climates ranging from desert to tropical rainforest and landforms from high mountain to inland swamp and coral reef. Some islands a thousand miles apart may have similar climates and features, yet large islands may have a variety of landscapes and climatic features within just a few miles.

Most continental and volcanic islands are called high islands even if they are not more than a few hundred feet high. Coral islands are generally called low islands because most are nearly at sea level.

New Zealand and the larger islands of Melanesia are called continental islands because they are made partly of extremely old rock layers, like portions of the continents. Many have steep slopes because of battering from sea waves and erosion from heavy rainfall. Not even the heavy growth of forest that covers these steep slopes can keep all the soil in place. Parts of New Guineas interior have terrain so rugged that they are nearly empty of people.

Most of the islands of Oceania are near the edge of the Pacific tectonic plate. As the plate moves northwest, it causes a great deal of geologic activity, including volcanic eruptions. Because of the many active volcanoes along the Pacific Plates boundaries, the surrounding shorelines are often called the Ring of Fire.

Volcanoes have created many Pacific islands, but only some are of the explosive kind. Others, such as those on the Hawaiian and Samoan islands, are massive dome-shaped volcanoes formed by successive sheets of lava flows. These types are called shield volcanoes because their rounded shapes look like warriors shields when viewed from above. The Hawaiian chain of islands is located on a geologic hot spot that has shifted southeastward for millions of years and is now under the island of Hawaii. Vast amounts of molten lava pour from Mauna Loa and Kilauea, the latter of which is the worlds largest active volcano. The island also has the highest shield volcano of Oceania, Mauna Kea, which rises to 13,796 feet (4,205 meters).

Low islands are called atolls if they consist of a ring of land or islets surrounding a shallow lagoon. Their land consists of broken pieces of coral and white sand. Many such low islands also have patches of fertile soil formed by slowly accumulated plant matter, airborne dust, and fertilizers applied by farmers. Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands is the largest atoll in the world. It consists of 90 islets on the rim of a lagoon of about 650 square miles (1,683 square kilometers). Many low islands are at risk from storms, tsunamis, and rising sea levels because of global warming.

Some coral islands consist of reef limestone that was raised slowly over thousands or even millions of years. Most of Tongas islands are of this raised type, including the largest, Tongatapu, which covers some 100 square miles (260 square kilometers). Equally large is the raised island of Niue. The two islands have rather flat surfaces and reddish-brown soil.

Because the limestone and volcanic rock on some islands is porous, there is little or no surface water. Many people depend on rainwater collected in cisterns, as well as imported potable water. Rainwater seeps underground where it collects above heavier salt water in a so-called freshwater lens. The bigger the island, the thicker and larger the lens. Small islets perched on atoll rims have small, thin, and fragile lenses. Such lenses are easy to exhaust, in which case seawater flows up and replaces themespecially where town wells draw excessive water.

Coral is also an important feature in the waters surrounding many islands. Nearly all the inhabited high islands of Oceania are surrounded by a type of coral reef called a fringing reef, except where the water is too cold.

Some parts of Oceania experience frequent earthquakes because of the movement of continental plates. Quakes that occur underwater sometimes produce tsunamis, or giant sea waves, which can cause terrible destruction when they reach shorelines. The worst natural disaster in Hawaiis history occurred when a tsunami struck the city of Hilo on April 1, 1946, causing 159 deaths. A tsunami that struck Papua New Guinea on July 17, 1998, killed more than 2,100 people, injured 1,000, and displaced 10,000 more.

Oceania is generally hot and humid year-round. The islands have no true winter or summer, but many areas experience seasonal changes in winds, ocean currents, and rainfall. Low islands are at the mercy of the winds, which can bring enough rain to create lush forests on some islands while leaving others dry wastelands. Most Oceanians live in parts of the western Pacific where rainfall exceeds 80 inches (200 centimeters) per year. In general, in the tropical areas strong trade winds blow from the east. Much farther away from the equator, the prevailing winds blow west to east. However, major storms and El Nio events can disrupt normal weather patterns.

Higher elevations generally have lower temperatures and higher amounts of rain, especially on slopes facing the wind. Mountains cause the air moving over them to rise and thus to cool. Clouds then form and produce rain. On the island of Kauai in Hawaii, roughly 460 inches (1,170 centimeters) of rain strike the summit of Mount Waialeale each year. But on the nearby sea the annual rainfall is only about 10 inches (25 centimeters). Hawaiis highest peaks, such as Mauna Kea, can be quite dry, because air blowing up the mountainsides loses most of its moisture before reaching the top. Mauna Kea has such clear air that it is one of the best astronomical sites on Earth.

Thunderstorms are frequent in Oceania, but far more dangerous are tropical storms, which extend for hundreds of miles. They sometimes grow powerful enough to become hurricanes, also called typhoons or tropical cyclones. The roaring winds and massive surges of ocean water that they produce can devastate farms, forests, villages, ports, and entire islands.

Where rainfall is plentiful, tropical plants such as coconuts, other palms, and breadfruit trees are common. The wetter islands also support varied animal life, such as multihued birds, fruit bats, crawling rodents, reptiles, and myriad insects. However, in some locations mosquitoes, biting flies, and sand fleas are unrelenting. Wild mammals bigger than pigs live only on the largest islands.

Many species have become extinct or endangered because of human farming, fishing, and hunting, as well as ill-conceived or accidental introductions of foreign species. Plants imported for agriculture or for ornamental reasons have crowded out innumerable species. Brown tree snakes, brought to Guam after World War II, are now a major threat to birds, lizards, and small mammals. Red deer, introduced to New Zealand by hunting enthusiasts, have multiplied into the millions. Rats gorging on eggs have nearly decimated entire species such as the tuatara lizard, which is now found only on some protected islands.

In their warm, shallow waters, coral reefs shelter enormous varieties of life, including sea anemones, marine worms, eels, fishes, shellfish, and sharks. Fringing reefs provide islands with an underwater wall that helps protect them from waves and swells. But submerged reefs can also tear gashes into boat hulls. Many reefs have been damaged or destroyed by overzealous fishers and clam hunters, as well as by ships and their anchors.

In all the vast area of Oceania there are roughly 14 million people. About three fourthsnearly 10 millionare in New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. Some 2 million more are divided between Hawaii and Fiji. The remainder are spread among numerous small islands. Oceanias population includes people of many different indigenous groups, in addition to later arrivals. Various indigenous Pacific Islanders form the largest groups in most places, with New Zealand, Hawaii, and the Northern Marianas being notable exceptions.

Of the three regions within Oceania, Melanesia has the largest population, especially in Papua New Guinea and Fiji. In addition to large numbers of indigenous islanders, there are many Indians, Chinese, and Indonesians. The latter groups have been called nonnative, though many of them were born on the islands. Nevertheless, they are often subject to racial and ethnic biases and even outright bigotry.

Polynesia is the next most populous region. New Zealand and Hawaii together account for more than 5 million people. At the other extreme, Pitcairn Island has only about 50 peopledescendants of the mutineers of the British ship HMS Bounty and their Polynesian companions. The Mori of New Zealand make up the largest number of indigenous Polynesians in the region, though nearly three fourths of that countrys people are of European descent. Most of Hawaiis people are descended from Asians and Europeans. In search of jobs, education, or other social opportunities, many Polynesians have migrated elsewhere; more people born in Niue and the Cook Islands live overseas than in their homelands. (See also Polynesian culture.)

Micronesia has the smallest population in Oceania. As in Polynesia, most of its population is widely dispersed in small groups on many islands. The largest cluster is on Guam, many of whose people are recent arrivals from Asia and the United States. Asians are also quite numerous in the Northern Marianas and Palau.

Nearly all the peoples of Oceania live in clusters, whether hamlets, villages, or cities. The majority of the people make a living in agriculture, either by farming their own plots of land, by working for plantations, or by exporting agricultural products.

In many places in Oceania, people have traditionally lived in large, extended-family groups. On many islands land has been owned and controlled at the village, family, or clan level and is inherited mainly through family connections. However, under the influence of European colonization and landowning laws in the 1800s and 1900s, large tracts of land were taken from hereditary owners.

Village layouts and building methods have changed radically. For example, traditional thatched roofs are well suited to the climate. However, many have been replaced with imported tin or corrugated steel roofs, which heat up quickly under the merciless tropical sun. The larger towns have grown faster than the villages, partly because of migration from rural areas to towns and cities. Nevertheless, large cities are still rare in Oceania.

In many Oceanian societies, people belong to large networks of relatives to whom they owe obligations based on kinship and on whom they may call in time of needfor example, in a drought or when a child is sent to school and needs tuition, books, and clothing. For a wedding or other large gathering, fellow villagers and relatives may feel honor-bound to assist. They may harvest extra taro and coconuts and make traditional gifts such as bark cloth and mats. They may also gather large quantities of fish or raise additional pigs for slaughter. In many places, large quantities of food are cooked in a rock-lined pit that is covered with leaves and a layer of earth, wet jute, or burlap sacks. At the start of the festivities, welcome speeches are often made and gifts exchanged.

Although traditional skills and customs have been kept alive in some areas, they have disappeared elsewhere, notably in cities. Rather than eating fresh-caught fish, many now eat fish out of cans, potted meat, and other convenience foods. At some celebrations, traditional Oceanian music has been replaced by recorded music, including American rap and hip-hop. As towns and cities grow, so do the numbers of video players, TVs, and computers. Yet the detritus of city life also grows, in the form of garbage heaps, sewage, and slums.

Major sources of individual and family income in Oceania include agriculture, fishing, mining, and tourism. Also important is the money sent home by workers who have found jobs in foreign countries, often as plantation or mine laborers. Foreign aid, fishing-rights contracts, and agricultural or mining exports are important sources of income to many island governments, which are generally the largest employers in the region.

Traditional households support themselves mainly by agriculture and fishing. Many households maintain gardens where crops are grown in shifting cultivation, also called slash-and-burn agriculture. Trees in forests are cut down and burned, leaving ashes to nourish the crops for a few brief seasons. After the soil nutrients are exhausted or the weeds have become too troublesome, another part of the forest is cleared and another garden planted.

Most subsistence crops produce edible roots or tubers such as taro and its relatives, which are grown in warm places. Sweet potatoes are found at higher altitudes or where it is colder, as in New Zealand. Coconut is very important. Its cream is used in cooking, and its dried meat, called copra, is the source of coconut oil. What is left is fed to pigs and other livestock, which may also graze on vegetation beneath the coconut trees. Chickens are also raised. Besides coconut palms, other common useful trees include bananas, sago palms in Melanesia, and breadfruit. Like many plants of Oceania, the breadfruit tree is not only grown for its fruit but is used to make other materials: the wood is good for building houses, the latex is used to caulk boats, and the leaf can be used as a plate.

On many of the larger islands, large companies that may be of European or Japanese origin own many coconut plantations. Indigenous islanders own smaller numbers of plantations. The principal plantation crop is copra, produced for export. Small farms also produce copra, and because people who live on atolls have little else to sell, coconut groves are the single most noticeable feature of many islands.

The more traditional societies of coastal Oceania still venture onto the reefs and open sea, catching and gathering fish, crustaceans, sea slugs, and a host of other edible marine species. Many groups have lost their fishing traditions, however. Large fishing boats working for foreign-owned corporations catch most of the fish in the region.

Mining is important, though Oceanias mineral reserves are small by world standards. In the 19th century guano, a natural fertilizer consisting of the manure of seabirds, was mined on many low islands. Today phosphate rock is taken from raised limestone islands. For decades, the main source of phosphate was Nauru, but its center has been transformed into a wasteland. New Caledonia is among the worlds leading producers of nickel, so its economy is influential in the region. Gold deposits have been found in limited quantities, with Papua New Guinea leading the region in exports. New Zealand also mines coal, natural gas, and petroleum, as well as minerals used in construction and industry.

Because opportunities and natural resources are limited on most islands, many see tourism as a major potential source of income. However, many jobs in tourism are menial and seasonal, and high travel times and costs can limit the number of visitors. Nevertheless, in recent decades tourism investment has significantly increased in Hawaii, New Zealand, Guam, Fiji, Tahiti (in French Polynesia), and other islands.

New Guinea and neighboring parts of Melanesia were probably first settled by Southeast Asians from 50,000 to 30,000 years ago, at roughly the same time as Australia. Bamboo rafts or other simple watercraft were probably used to make short ocean voyages during that period of discovery. Thriving on their abilities as gatherers (foragers), hunters, and fishers, these colonists and their descendants gradually multiplied, particularly as they invented more advanced watercraft. By 9,000 years ago, small-scale farming had spread throughout the Solomon Islands. Between 4,000 and 2,000 years ago, large parts of Micronesia and Polynesia were settled, and by ad 1200 nearly the entire region had been navigated. Watercraft included paddle-driven rafts and dugouts, double canoes, and large outrigger canoes powered by triangular sails. Most of these early Polynesians and Micronesians were highly skilled sailors able to navigate for thousands of miles by reading the stars, sun, ocean swells, and winds.

Ancient Oceania had several distinct cultures and lifestyles. For example, religious practices and beliefs varied among different groups. Also, political power was divided between men and women in various ways, and different societies had differing rules for how land, wealth, and magical abilities were supposed to be inherited. Relationships with neighbors also varied greatly. As in Europe, Asia, and elsewhere, neighbors sometimes traded with one another and sometimes fought wars. Revenge killings and headhunting were also known in some areas. Oceania was not a paradise, as some Europeans and Americans would later assume. Yet neither was it a realm of perpetual anarchy and savage bloodlust, despite the horrid tales later told by European missionariestales that were sometimes based on eyewitness accounts.

Oceania changed rapidly in the 1800s when Europeans established colonies there and pressured islanders to accept their styles of government and religion. On the positive side, Europeans claimed to have ended local warfare and headhunting. They also introduced helpful tools, crops, and domesticated animals. On the negative side, Europeans brought new diseases and weapons that caused the loss of many lives. They also damaged or destroyed numerous cultural traditions, disrupted trade networks, and, in some instances, forced islanders into virtual slavery.

The work of European missionaries in Oceania has also been controversial. Many islanders have described the spread of Christianity as a blessing. Others, however, lament the loss of native culture, including the neglect of traditional religious sites, the loss of ceremonial ties and group unity, and, on some islands, the requirement that layers of clothing be worn in the hot climateeven while playing in the ocean surf.

Europeans also introduced money and the desire for it where none existed before. Taxes were required from some islanders. Also, many parents wanted their children to have a European-style education so they could adjust more easily to the economic and social changes brought by Europeans. Villagers built schools but had to raise money to buy the concrete, tin roofs, and other materials. Books and supplies also had to be bought and teachers paid. In order to raise money, they had to sell exportable products. Copra was the first major product to fill this role, and in many places it remains the largest export.

During World War II Oceania experienced destruction on a scale never witnessed there before. Japanese and American forces fought major battles on such islands as Guam and Chuuk (Truk) in Micronesia, Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands, Oahu in Hawaii, and Tarawa in Kiribati. Even islands not in the line of fire were affected by troop placements, food shortages, and disrupted trade.

Economic developments occurred rapidly after World War II. Many villagers began to desire the kinds of consumer goods available only from distant countries. Seeking cash incomes, they left their villages for places of greater opportunitycities in the islands as well as overseas. They often suffered hardships abroad, including long hours and harsh conditions for low pay. But the money they sent home from New Zealand, the United States (particularly Hawaii and California), and elsewhere became a major source of local income. Meanwhile, increasing numbers of traders, tourists, and Christian missionaries arrived. Some villages grew into towns and cities, supporting a new bureaucracy. Traditional social life declined.

Until the 1990s nuclear bombs were tested on several Polynesian islands, including the United Statescontrolled Bikini and Johnston and the French Polynesian Mururoa and Fangataufa. Johnston was used for chemical weapons storage and incineration until 2000, despite numerous protests. Some United States islands are still used as missile testing sites.

Interactive

In the early 21st century, many Oceanian societies sought to increase income from international tourism and a variety of other sources, including the sale of fishing contracts, mineral rights, stamps, and Internet domain names. As trade increased, however, so did fears that the small economies of Oceania could be overwhelmed by global economic forces. One of the greatest concerns facing the region was global warming. Even slight changes in sea temperature could increase the frequency of typhoons, and rising sea levels could completely submerge some islands and devastate coral reefs.

Ward Barrett

Stephen P. Davis

Colbert, Evelyn. The Pacific Islands: Paths to the Present (Westview, 1997).Crocombe, Ron. The South Pacific (Univ. South Pacific, 2001).Denoon, Donald, ed. The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997).Douglas, Norman, and Douglas, Ngaire, eds. Pacific Islands Yearbook, 17th ed. (Fiji Times,1994).Rapaport, Moshe, ed. The Pacific Islands: Environment and Society (Bess Press, 1999).Theroux, Paul. The Happy Isles of Oceania (G.P. Putnams Sons, 1992).

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