Monthly Archives: September 2022

Study of the logic, methods, and foundations of social sciences

The philosophy of social science is the study of the logic, methods, and foundations of social sciences (psychology, cultural anthropology, sociology, etc...). Philosophers of social science are concerned with the differences and similarities between the social and the natural sciences, causal relationships between social phenomena, the possible existence of social laws, and the ontological significance of structure and agency.

Comte first described the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in Positive Philosophy, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842. These texts were followed by the 1848 work, A General View of Positivism (published in English in 1865). The first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the natural sciences already in existence (geoscience, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science. Observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and classifying the sciences in this way, Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.[1] For him, the physical sciences had necessarily to arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex "Queen science" of human society itself. His View of Positivism would therefore set-out to define, in more detail, the empirical goals of sociological method.

Comte offered an account of social evolution, proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general 'law of three stages'. The idea bears some similarity to Marx's view that human society would progress toward a communist peak. This is perhaps unsurprising as both were profoundly influenced by the early Utopian socialist, Henri de Saint-Simon, who was at one time Comte's teacher and mentor. Both Comte and Marx intended to develop, scientifically, a new secular ideology in the wake of European secularisation.

The early sociology of Herbert Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte. Writing after various developments in evolutionary biology, Spencer attempted (in vain) to reformulate the discipline in what we might now describe as socially Darwinistic terms (although Spencer was a proponent of Lamarckism rather than Darwinism).

The modern academic discipline of sociology began with the work of mile Durkheim (18581917). While Durkheim rejected much of the detail of Comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisting that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality.[2] Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. In the same year he argued, in The Rules of Sociological Method (1895):[3] "[o]ur main goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct... What has been called our positivism is but a consequence of this rationalism."[4] Durkheim's seminal monograph Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and Protestant populations, distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy.

The positivist perspective, however, has been associated with 'scientism'; the view that the methods of the natural sciences may be applied to all areas of investigation, be it philosophical, social scientific, or otherwise. Among most social scientists and historians, orthodox positivism has long since fallen out of favor. Today, practitioners of both social and physical sciences recognize the distorting effect of observer bias and structural limitations. This scepticism has been facilitated by a general weakening of deductivist accounts of science by philosophers such as Thomas Kuhn, and new philosophical movements such as critical realism and neopragmatism. Positivism has also been espoused by 'technocrats' who believe in the inevitability of social progress through science and technology.[5] The philosopher-sociologist Jrgen Habermas has critiqued pure instrumental rationality as meaning that scientific-thinking becomes something akin to ideology itself.[6]

Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are more typically cited as the fathers of contemporary social science. In psychology, a positivistic approach has historically been favoured in behaviourism.

In any discipline, there will always be a number of underlying philosophical predispositions in the projects of scientists. Some of these predispositions involve the nature of social knowledge itself, the nature of social reality, and the locus of human control in action.[7] Intellectuals have disagreed about the extent to which the social sciences should mimic the methods used in the natural sciences. The founding positivists of the social sciences argued that social phenomena can and should be studied through conventional scientific methods. This position is closely allied with scientism, naturalism and physicalism; the doctrine that all phenomena are ultimately reducible to physical entities and physical laws. Opponents of naturalism, including advocates of the verstehen method, contended that there is a need for an interpretive approach to the study of human action, a technique radically different from natural science.[8] The fundamental task for the philosophy of social science has thus been to question the extent to which positivism may be characterized as 'scientific' in relation to fundamental epistemological foundations. These debates also rage within contemporary social sciences with regard to subjectivity, objectivity, intersubjectivity and practicality in the conduct of theory and research. Philosophers of social science examine further epistemologies and methodologies, including realism, critical realism, instrumentalism, functionalism, structuralism, interpretivism, phenomenology, and post-structuralism.

Though essentially all major social scientists since the late 19th century have accepted that the discipline faces challenges that are different from those of the natural sciences, the ability to determine causal relationships invokes the same discussions held in science meta-theory. Positivism has sometimes met with caricature as a breed of naive empiricism, yet the word has a rich history of applications stretching from Comte to the work of the Vienna Circle and beyond. By the same token, if positivism is able to identify causality, then it is open to the same critical rationalist non-justificationism presented by Karl Popper, which may itself be disputed through Thomas Kuhn's conception of epistemic paradigm shift.

Early German hermeneuticians such as Wilhelm Dilthey pioneered the distinction between natural and social science ('Geisteswissenschaft'). This tradition greatly informed Max Weber and Georg Simmel's antipositivism, and continued with critical theory.[9] Since the 1960s, a general weakening of deductivist accounts of science has grown side-by-side with critiques of "scientism", or 'science as ideology'.[10] Jrgen Habermas argues, in his On the Logic of the Social Sciences (1967), that "the positivist thesis of unified science, which assimilates all the sciences to a natural-scientific model, fails because of the intimate relationship between the social sciences and history, and the fact that they are based on a situation-specific understanding of meaning that can be explicated only hermeneutically access to a symbolically prestructured reality cannot be gained by observation alone."[9] Verstehende social theory has been the concern of phenomenological works, such as Alfred Schtz Phenomenology of the Social World (1932) and Hans-Georg Gadamer's Truth and Method (1960).[11] Phenomenology would later prove influential in the subject-centred theory of the post-structuralists.

The mid-20th-century linguistic turn led to a rise in highly philosophical sociology, as well as so-called "postmodern" perspectives on the social acquisition of knowledge.[12] One notable critique of social science is found in Peter Winch's Wittgensteinian text The Idea of Social Science and its Relation to Philosophy (1958). Michel Foucault provides a potent critique in his archaeology of the human sciences, though Habermas and Richard Rorty have both argued that Foucault merely replaces one such system of thought with another.[13][14]

One underlying problem for the social psychologist is whether studies can or should ultimately be understood in terms of the meaning and consciousness behind social action, as with folk psychology, or whether more objective, natural, materialist, and behavioral facts are to be given exclusive study. This problem is especially important for those within the social sciences who study qualitative mental phenomena, such as consciousness, associative meanings, and mental representations, because a rejection of the study of meanings would lead to the reclassification of such research as non-scientific. Influential traditions like psychodynamic theory and symbolic interactionism may be the first victims of such a paradigm shift. The philosophical issues lying in wait behind these different positions have led to commitments to certain kinds of methodology which have sometimes bordered on the partisan. Still, many researchers have indicated a lack of patience for overly dogmatic proponents of one method or another.[15]

Social research remains extremely common and effective in practise with respect to political institutions and businesses. Michael Burawoy has marked the difference between public sociology, which is focused firmly on practical applications, and academic or professional sociology, which involves dialogue amongst other social scientists and philosophers.

Structure and agency forms an enduring debate in social theory: "Do social structures determine an individual's behaviour or does human agency?" In this context 'agency' refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and make free choices, whereas 'structure' refers to factors which limit or affect the choices and actions of individuals (such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, and so on). Discussions over the primacy of structure or agency relate to the very core of social ontology ("What is the social world made of?", "What is a cause in the social world, and what is an effect?"). One attempt to reconcile postmodern critiques with the overarching project of social science has been the development, particularly in Britain, of critical realism. For critical realists such as Roy Bhaskar, traditional positivism commits an 'epistemic fallacy' by failing to address the ontological conditions which make science possible: that is, structure and agency itself.

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Philosophy of social science - Wikipedia

image:Joint group picture of the editors of the scientific journal "Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics" (ACP) together with the Publications Committee of the European Union of Geosciences (EGU). They met on the occasion of the twentieth anniversary of the open access journal ACP at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz. view more

Credit: Dom Jack, MPIC

After more than 20 years of service, Ulrich Pschl and Thomas Koop officially stepped down as ACP Executive Editors. In the years 2000/2001 they created the journal together with Ken Carslaw and Rolf Sander, then all affiliates or alumni of the Max Planck Institute, and Bill Sturges from the University of East Anglia, UK. Barbara Ervens (CNRS & University of Clermont-Ferrand, France) and Ken Carslaw (University of Leeds, UK) will continue as Co-Chief Executive Editors.

It has been a great pleasure to design and develop our new approach of scientific exchange and quality assurance with a highly diverse team of colleagues from all over the world, says Uli Pschl. The interactive open access approach of ACP and EGU provides the basis for an epistemic web openly displaying and tracing both what we know and how we know it, i.e., how the published scientific knowledge has been validated by public review and discussion according to the principles of critical rationalism.

Interactive Community Platform EGUsphere

The EGU journals have been recently complemented by the repository EGUsphere that offers an even wider variety of options for scientific exchange and publication by combining the established openly discussed journal submissions (discussion papers) with classical preprints and conference abstracts. Exceeding the features of traditional preprint servers, EGUsphere also serves as a discussion forum that allows the quick publication of initial ideas as preprints, involvement of the scientific community by commenting on these papers and the seamless transition of such papers for consideration as journal articles as final peer reviewed publications.

A virtual collection or magazine of interdisciplinary highlight articles from all journals will be set up soon under the title EGU Editors Choice, compiling concise articles that report on major advances in geosciences or present agenda-setting and provocative viewpoints of highest interest to the geoscience community and broader public. Beyond this virtual collection, the EGU Publications Committee also discussed the perspectives of a separate new highlight journal under the working title EGU Letters. Moreover, EGU also offers the Encyclopedia of Geosciences, which is a virtual collection of peer-reviewed scientific review articles on topics relevant to the geosciences, written by the experts of the field and published in the EGU open access journals.

"The EGU publications successfully grow not only in number of journals and papers, but also by widening the variety of publication platforms such as EGUsphere and the virtual highlight collection. Such development and implementation of innovative features distinguishes the EGU publications from their competitors from the beginning, when the open peer review and interactive discussion concept was first introduced, says Barbara Ervens, Co-Chief Executive Editor at ACP and Chair of the EGU Publications Committee.

All EGU publications are operated by the scientific service provider and pure open access publisher Copernicus on behalf of EGU. Hundreds of journal editors, thousands of reviewers and about 50 EGUsphere preprint moderators provide volunteer services to ensure scientific quality and integrity of the publications, in line with the not-for-profit philosophy of the EGU.

Globally distributed network

Yafang Cheng, Senior Editor at ACP, says: For over 20 years, ACP has always been a journal that is from the community and for the community, as a group-effort of like-minded scientists sharing the same dream of better scientific communication. We pursue this approach with a globally distributed network of over 160 co-editors in close exchange with thousands of authors, reviewers, commenters, and readers.

In the development and launch of ACP, Paul Crutzen, Nobel Prize awardee and former director at MPIC, played an essential role. Honoring his contributions, this year the newly established annual "ACP Paul Crutzen Publication Award" was presented for the first time at this meeting to recognize authors of an outstanding ACP publication that was selected by an independent commission. Christoph A. Keller (NASA) and coauthors received the 2021 award for their publication Global impact of COVID-19 restrictions on the surface concentrations of nitrogen dioxide and ozone.

Ken Carslaw says: Paul Crutzen played such a critical role in getting the journal off the ground 20 years ago, so we are proud to be able to honor his contribution to ACPs success with the journals first publication award. We are also grateful to the independent commission, led by Prof Annica Ekman from Stockholm University, for selecting the paper from nearly one thousand articles published in 2021.

Disclaimer: AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert system.

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Expanding open access to scientific knowledge and discussion - EurekAlert

Monday 26 September 2022~1. Will Italys elections hurt Pope Francis?2. Thomism versus rationalism: 44 years after his death, tienne Gilsons ideas remain important3 . The canton of Lucerne does not want to finance the new Swiss Guards barracks4. Torpedoing the presidential election leads to the collapse of the Republic, worries Patriarch Rai5. German bishops meet amid crisis~

Yesterday, Sunday 25 September, Italians went to the polls to vote for a new parliament, which will lead to a new prime minister. The party that received the most votes is the right-wing Fratelli dItalia, which combines disaffection from Republican institutions with a nostalgia for the fascism of Benito Mussolini, comments Massimo Faggioli, Italian religion historian, in the liberal magazine, Commonweal. The partys victory means that its leader, Giorgia Meloni, will be Italys first woman and first hard-right-wing prime minister. Faggiolis opinion article, however, centers on the Vatican and the Churchs unusually cautious reaction to these elections and how a right-wing victory could affect Pope Francis position in the country. The Italian historian underlines, for example, how the Jesuit magazine close to the Vatican, Civilt Cattolica, has published nothing about whats at stake in these elections, which it usually has during other elections. The Italian bishops did publish a statement encouraging citizens to vote and reminding them to remember the most marginalized, but Faggioli analyzes that the Catholic leadership is overwhelmed by the gap between the seriousness of the situation and the forces at their disposal, underscoring the growing political irrelevance of the Catholic Church in Italy. Faggioli also emphasizes a difficulty of communication between Francis and the Italian bishops. The new president of the bishops conference, Bologna Cardinal Matteo Zuppi, is part of the Community of SantEgidio, which has seen some of its members running for parliament on a slate connected to the center-left Democratic Party, whose positions do not always coincide with the Church. On the other hand, Zuppi knows that some clerics and Catholics would welcome a right-wing government that, although anti-immigration, could also oppose recognizing LGBT rights or relaxing abortion laws. The Italian historian assesses that the influence of Catholicism politically in Italy is far weaker than in the past and also wonders whether Italian bishops and the Vatican are underestimating the repercussions of these elections on the Church. With a hard-right government in Italy, Francis would be forced to find a way to live with political leaders who have a very different worldview and even a different language than he has. A new government in Italy could very easily strengthen opposition to Francis and severely limit the social and political reception of his pontificates core message, concludes Faggioli.

Commonweal, English

On the occasion of the 44th anniversary of the death of the French historian of philosophy tienne Gilson (1884-1978), Quebec Catholic magazine Le Verbe published a long article on the life of this intellectual, who is often misunderstood but who played an essential role in the rediscovery of the Christian philosophical heritage. Alex La Salle, the author of the article, underlines how useful Gilsons thought is for understanding why Christianity cannot be associated with irrationality. The French historian, at a time when rationalism had become the dominant thought, was the first to demonstrate that the roots of modern rationality were to be found in the Thomistic scholasticism of the Middle Ages, at the time considered by the Hegelian philosopher Victor Cousin as the night of thought. The Middle Ages conquered the rights of reason for modern thought, estimated Gilson, who had a lot of difficulty finding his place in a French university where atheism, under the guise of secularism, often forbade interest in Christian thinkers. Initially hostile to scholasticism himself, he changed his point of view when he discovered that the figurehead of modern rationalism, Ren Descartes, had himself been strongly inspired by medieval thought. Gilson went on to become one of the greatest specialists in Christian thought, and in particular in Saint Thomas Aquinas.

Le Verbe, French

3 . The canton of Lucerne does not want to finance the Swiss Guards new barracks

In Switzerland, the people of Lucerne have rejected with 71.48% of the votes the possibility to contribute up to 400,000 francs to the reconstruction of the Swiss Guards barracks in Rome.

Cath.ch, French

4. Torpedoing the presidential election leads to the collapse of the Republic, worries Patriarch Rai

Any attempt to torpedo the presidential deadline aims to cause the fall of the Republic, on the one hand, and to marginalize the Christian role, especially Maronite, at the level of power, on the other hand, while we are the fathers of this Republic and the standard bearers of the national partnership, lamented Cardinal Bechara Boutros Pierre Ra, in his homily on Sunday. In Lebanon, presidential elections are expected to take place in the fall.

IciBeyrouth, French

5. German bishops meet amid crisis

The autumn plenary assembly of the German Bishops Conference begins a few weeks after the fourth synodal assembly, which revealed tensions within the episcopate concerning a possible reformulation of sexual morality.

Katholisch.de, German

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Rome & the World: Italys elections and the Church Etienne Gilson 40 years after his death - Aleteia

For a period this summer, it was popular to dismiss Liz Truss as a flip-flopper. The argument went something like this: she was a Liberal Democrat, then a Conservative; a Remainer then a die-hard Brexiteer; a modernising Cameroon then a darling of the Thatcherite hard right. In this reading, her free-market overtures during the party leadership campaign were merely the latest act of opportunism, a calculated but hollow pitch to a Tory membership still pining for a new Iron Lady.

This line was never very persuasive, as nothing in Trusss past was fundamentally incompatible with her proclaimed ideological commitment to a small-state, free-market model. And now, just three weeks into her tenure in No 10, it has been comprehensively buried. The unofficial Budget from her like-minded Chancellor, Kwasi Kwarteng, on 23 September, removed any remaining doubt by ushering in the biggest package of tax cuts since the Conservative chancellor Anthony Barbers expansionary dash for growth in 1972, and by targeting the benefit of those cuts overwhelmingly on the richest.

Far from popularity-chasing opportunism, this amounts to a huge experiment that, as the Conservative commentator Tim Montgomerie has put it, effectively treats Britain as a giant laboratory for economically libertarian ideas. The success or failure of that experiment will make or break Trusss government. Say what you like about the wisdom of this approach and the markets have had their say but it is absolutely not the method of a flip-flopper. Rather, it is that of a convinced member of a deep-rooted network of ideas, institutions and thinkers born on the shores of Lake Geneva over 75 years ago. It is impossible to understand the ideological zeal with which Truss and Kwarteng are pushing Britain towards the economic brink without understanding that network.

[See also: The Conservatives are lost in a fantasy world and are a danger to the country]

In 1947 the economist Friedrich Hayek convened the Mont Pelerin Society, named after the bucolic location of the Swiss hotel where this grouping of free-market thinkers gathered. Inspired by Hayeks warnings of a road to serfdom as set forth in his 1944 book of that name they were united in concern at the apparent march of international collectivism, in both its totalitarian (Soviet) and democratic (social democrat and New Deal) forms.

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Over the subsequent decades members and associates of this group established successive generations of influential think tanks advancing anti-collectivist economics. In 1955, Antony Fisher founded the Institute of Economic Affairs in London (IEA). This would help inspire a second wave in the 1970s, including the Cato Institute and the Heritage Foundation in Washington DC and, in London, the Centre for Policy Studies (CPS) and the Adam Smith Institute (ASI). As the historian Daniel Stedman Jones puts it in his book Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics, these transatlantic ideological entrepreneurs provided both a long-term incubator for such ideas and a bridge from high economic theory to applied policy practice. Both Reaganomics and Thatcherism would have been unthinkable without them.

From the 1980s to the early 2000s came the next wave of more public-facing bodies such as Americans for Tax Reform and the TaxPayers Alliance (TPA). Matthew Elliott, who worked at the former before returning to his native UK to found the latter in 2004, would also go on to help establish and lead the Vote Leave campaign in the run-up to the 2016 Brexit referendum.

These bodies are not homogeneous. Cato, for example, is classically libertarian on social issues like LGBT+ rights, whereas Heritage is hard-line conservative. There are also differences of approach. Mark Littlewood, the director of the IEA, who has known Truss since their student days they both attended Oxford in the 1990s differentiates between more upstream think tanks like his own, which are closer to academia and concentrate on disseminating ideas among opinion-forming elites, and more downstream organisations, which are focused on government policymaking (like the CPS) and shaping debate in the mass media (like the TPA).

Marc Stears tutored Truss when she was a PPE student at Oxford and today leads the Policy Lab at University College London. He notes that the more theoretical upstream parts of the libertarian think-tank spectrum have grown in significance as academia has tilted leftwards. There are fewer centres in the big universities where these thinkers cluster, he told me. So that makes the role of think tanks more important.

Yet certain traits are common to the Mont Pelerin think-tank family. One is philosophical. Stears says: Hayeks ideas are really important because of the underlying spirit that animates them: that there is no such thing as collective intelligence; the state does not know things and only individuals can really know things. That faith in the wisdom of the crowd, as expressed in price mechanisms, is very deeply ingrained.

He also points to a shared tendency to be patient, citing the Marxist philosopher GA Cohens observation that the supply-side right has succeeded at keeping the fires burning even through periods in the political wilderness. Littlewood agrees that the greatest strength of organisations like his is to invest in the long-term dissemination of their ideas.

There is also geographical communality. The majority of these think tanks are clustered around Tufton Street, a Georgian terrace in Westminster, and Massachusetts Avenue, a long boulevard in Washington DC (a distinction being that Mass Ave is also home to think tanks of various other intellectual outlooks).

These two worlds have long been linked by transatlantic personalities criss-crossing between them. Prominent examples include Fisher (who founded the Atlas Network, a Washington-based umbrella organisation of international free-market think tanks), Edwin Feulner (a former IEA intern who co-founded Heritage) and Eamonn Butler (an ally of Feulners who co-founded the ASI in London). Today they number Ryan Bourne a Truss ally, formerly of the IEA and now at Cato; Daniel Hannan a Brexiteer former MEP and founder of the Initiative for Free Trade (IFT); and Nile Gardiner head of the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom at Heritage.

Ideologically, the institutions and thinkers of this world share a common commitment to a low-tax, low-regulation, Anglo-Saxon social model, distinct from the social democratic European one. They tend to favour mechanisms for advancing that model, such as free-trade deals, levelling down state intervention, and demarcated zones pioneering extremely small-state government (variously referred to as freeports, investment zones or charter cities). They instinctively prefer market-led solutions to collective problems, such as climate change, over state-led ones. Perhaps not unrelatedly, many of them draw on opaque funding from big private-sector interests. Cato, for instance, has received backing from corporations such as FedEx and Google, and, in the past, from the tobacco industry which has also been a source of funding for both the IEA and ASI.

In the Britain of 2022 these instincts express themselves in a particular analysis of the state of the country. This, as Truss-ite thinkers explain, starts from the argument that British governments since Margaret Thatcher Conservative as well as Labour have become much too sentimental about the distribution and moral character of growth, and too little focused on raising the overall growth level. As Bourne puts it: Liz Truss would not consider it a failure if she got the growth rate up significantly but not equally across regions.

It is not a politics of pursuing what is popular per se, but of letting what works (defined as whatever lifts the growth rate) speak for itself. They wont be transactional about policies, Bourne says of Truss and Kwarteng. Its the whole string of things. Incrementally, the patient might not like the medicine, but overall they will feel healthier and revived.

Even during her student years in Oxford, recalls Marc Stears, Truss prided herself on defying intellectual convention. Her primary characteristic was a love of controversy, quirkiness and idiosyncrasy Her thinking was always intriguing and contrarian, if not always fully worked through. A brief flirtation with the Lib Dems is not entirely inconsistent with right-wing libertarianism (the partys Orange Book tendency has links with this world too, and as a student Truss was also a member of the Hayek Society). She definitely sat outside the prevailing social democratic orthodoxy even then, Stears says.

Truss worked in think-tank land herself before her election to parliament, serving as deputy director of Reform from 2008 to 2010, a period when the organisation was laying some of the intellectual foundations of the spending cuts and market-led approach to public services that would be introduced under David Cameron and George Osborne. Cameron and Osborne may have been more Thatcherite where Truss is more Reaganite, notes Tim Bale of Queen Mary University of London, a historian of the Conservative Party. But they shared the basic belief that the market should be the main force in economic life, the state as small as possible and the individual as large as possible.

Shared beliefs, yes, but with different degrees of intensity. In 2010, Truss typified a romantically Thatcherite intake of new Tory MPs who thought Cameron and Osborne were being too cautious about slashing the state.

When you think that peoples politicisation tends to take place in their teens and early twenties, it is perfectly understandable that MPs who had come of age around 1997 would equate past Conservative election victories with what they saw as Margaret Thatchers uncompromising free-market ideology, rather than her more compromising reality, Bale says.

Truss rapidly became a figurehead for this generation. Liz was the first convenor of the Free Enterprise Group, recalls Littlewood, referring to the establishment in 2011 of a cluster of like-minded Conservative MPs which was effectively the IEAs parliamentary branch. And Kwasi Kwarteng was the second.

Along with other free-marketeers from the Tory 2010 intake, such as Priti Patel and Dominic Raab, the duo co-authored After the Coalition (2011), and then the more radical Britannia Unchained (2012), both small-statist screeds drawing heavily on Tufton Street thinking.

[See also: Mini-budget 2022 summary: Kwasi Kwartengs major tax cut plans as it happened]

If there is a moment when Truss appears to have been genuinely opportunistic, it was probably not her supposed conversion to the Brexit cause after the 2016 referendum but her initial support for Remain. That would explain the speed and conviction with which she emerged as a born again Brexiteer afterwards, a political rebirth that accelerated in a succession of speeches following her appointment as chief secretary to the Treasury in 2017.

A particularly notable speech was delivered at the Cato Institute in Washington in 2018. In it, Truss called for a new, small-state Anglo-American dream driven by an emergent generation of market millennials used to the freedoms of the app economy Uber-riding, Airbnb-ing, Deliveroo-eating freedom fighters, as she put it elsewhere. Free enterprise is a hymn to individuality and non-conformity, she proclaimed to her Cato audience. Its what allows the young to flower and the anti-establishment to flourish.

Bourne helped set up the speech. I put it to him that her argument ignores strong youth support for the likes of Jeremy Corbyn and Bernie Sanders. Its a case of stated preference versus revealed preference, he said. Lizs essential argument is that, in their actions, young people in both countries are very entrepreneurial, independent, and enjoy the fruits of a liberal, dynamic economy. She thinks there is a latent enthusiasm for markets if we can reform things in a direction that enables these people to fulfil their wants and needs, like starting companies and buying homes.

During that September 2018 visit to Washington, Truss held off-the-record meetings on regulatory reform with representatives of Heritage as well as discussions with Americans for Tax Reform. Her visit was immediately followed by Cato and Hannans IFT publishing an ideal UK-US free trade deal that included input from the IEA and Heritage. It promoted a greater role for private firms in British education and healthcare, an end to the precautionary principle in British food regulation as well as watered-down environmental rules. (In her next role, as trade secretary, Truss would even appoint Hannan to the Board of Trade.)

It was around this time that she became engrossed in books by the American historian Rick Perlstein on the making of the Reagan revolution. These tell of how the Gipper adopted advice given to Richard Nixon by, of all people, the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev: If the people believe theres an imaginary river out there, you dont tell them theres no river there. You build an imaginary bridge over the imaginary river. In Perlsteins telling of Reagans rise, that meant a cocktail of infectious optimism and cynical exploitation of social grievances.

By the time Truss became foreign secretary in 2021 and the prospect of a leadership election and the prize of 10 Downing Street came into view her ideology, rooted in the school of thought founded at Mont Pelerin, was long-established. Her ideological disposition is towards the likes of Robert Mundell, Alan Reynolds and Arthur Laffer, says Bourne, the original supply-side thinkers in the US who influenced the underpinnings of the Reagan administration. The basic idea is that monetary policy deals with inflation and that fiscal and especially tax policy has to deliver incentives for long-run growth.

Another inspiration is Rogernomics in 1980s New Zealand, when the Labour governments finance minister Roger Douglas slashed trade tariffs and non-tariff barriers and pioneered monetary policy targeting. (The legacy of that neoliberal experiment remains deeply divisive on the New Zealand left.)

So total is Trusss faith in free-market ideas and the networks that produced them that, now she is Prime Minister, the supposed free-market outriders are finding themselves being outridden by the sitting government. Littlewood of the IEA marvels at the scope of the unofficial Budget. I have long tried to fine-tune out criticism of Conservative governments for not being radical enough; now theyre being more radical than even we are requesting. He cites the governments commitment to scrap all remaining EU law as an example. Even when the IEA and Truss disagreed, the closeness was evident; its criticism of her energy price cap promptly elicited an explanatory call from No 10.

Old Tuftonians hold many of the senior jobs in her government. Matt Sinclair is the standout example, says Littlewood of Trusss chief economic adviser, formerly of the TPA. He is steeped in this world. Ruth Porter, deputy chief of staff, is an IEA alumna. Sophie Jarvis, No 10s political secretary, was formerly at the ASI. She will have hired and appointed people who are on board with her ideologically, agrees Bourne. With Kwarteng as Chancellor, as well as James Cleverly as Foreign Secretary and Jacob Rees-Mogg as Business Secretary, the major cabinet roles are held by true believers.

Free-market think tanks, like the IEA, that have long considered themselves to be outside the broad British consensus have used provocation and controversy to catch attention, shake things up and try to shift debates. Truss, observes Marc Stears of his former student, is now bringing that approach into government. She loves this idea that the action is in the reaction, prodding and provoking people. The unofficial Budget was like going to a slightly mad libertarian think-tank report launch.

He draws a contrast between Cameron, who took risks such as the Brexit referendum because he believed things were fundamentally stable, and Truss, who actually wants to destabilise things. She thinks the prevailing order is wrong and there is a need to break things to rebuild.

In Tuftonland, and in its US equivalent, the announcements of 23 September are seen as just the beginning, despite the reaction from the markets. Next up, it is hoped and anticipated: spending cuts to balance out the tax cuts.

But where and what to cut? In 2015 Bourne and Kwarteng co-authored a book, A Time for Choosing, that proposed halving the number of Whitehall departments. During her leadership campaign, Truss floated the possibility of regionalising public sector pay (this idea was quickly dropped). In his statement, Kwarteng hinted at coming welfare cuts.

There is also an expectation of more deregulation. Kwasis advisers talk of unveiling a whole series of supply-side reforms in the next six weeks, says Littlewood, hopefully: a permanent state of dramatic policy announcements.

Bourne cites childcare, infrastructure, energy and housing (street votes on city planning decisions, for example) as possible focuses, as well as farming (where there might be a quid pro quo where they scale back government support but relax regulations). And I expect this philosophy to apply to lifestyle freedoms, too, adds Littlewood. Deregulating ads for sugary drinks, McDonalds advertising on the London Underground, that sort of thing.

Think tanks, of course, do not need to worry about elections. But the Truss-Tufton mentality is that results trump politics. Her broad view is We have to show, not tell, says Bourne. We have to get on with free-market reforms and when they create results they create a baseline, and that wins hearts and minds. There are echoes of the Prime Ministers vision of market millennials here: that young people will come to recognise their small-state instincts when they feel the benefit of such politics put into action.

Littlewood acknowledges Trusss uphill electoral battle, but says it is time to start asking: What sort of reforms might be considered for the event that she wins the next election and has five more years of power?

Given the audacity of the Prime Ministers first moves in office and the dramatic market response, the mind boggles. The IEAs director is looking forward to Octobers annual conference of the Mont Pelerin Society in Oslo, and Randian discussions on big-picture libertarian topics such as whether cryptocurrencies will make state fiat currency obsolete over the coming decades.

[See also: Liz Trusss free-market experiment is a threat to economic stability]

Some on the left will read this article, note the apocalyptic market numbers and economic forecasts, and wonder whether it gives Truss too much credit to ponder the ideas, thinkers and institutions influencing her policies. But it is precisely the radicalism in a reckless, negative sense of the term that makes understanding this world-view so important. Arguably, the influence of institutions such as the IEA and the TPA, and their American cousins, has been too little scrutinised. So too has the intellectual assumptions they have popularised. In one televised debate during the summers Conservative leadership contest, Rishi Sunak took direct aim at Trusss unfunded tax cuts, saying they would drive up inflation; she replied, with total conviction, that responding to inflation was simply a matter of being tough enough on the monetary supply. Yet the discussion that ensued was concerned not with the underlying world-view that this revealed, but whether or not Sunak had mansplained to her. Substance in politics matters, for better or for worse. It demands engagement and sceptical analysis.

Moreover, for opponents of the Conservatives, studying the heritage of the ideas now being enacted by the most ideologically driven cabinet since the 1980s is key to understanding their political weaknesses. It would be foolish blithely to assume that Truss and her government will self-combust. Bad governments demand more opposition, not less. And opposition requires understanding.

The Mont Pelerin network and the institutions it manifested in London and Washington has long contained certain tensions that can be exploited by opponents of the Truss project. One tension is that between a Thatcherite insistence on sound money and a Reaganite debt-funded dash for growth. Why did the Mont Pelerin vision express itself as the former in Britain and the latter in America? Asking that question reveals fundamental differences between the two economies: the American dollar is more formidable than the British pound and the US has more expansionary demographics (a younger population with a higher birth rate), making the politics of debt, and how the market views it, different in the two countries.

Related to this are the manifold differences between the Chicago and Austrian schools of free-market economics. The former is associated with Milton Friedman and tends to assert the perfect rationalism of markets and the value of printing money; the latter is associated with Ludwig von Mises and asserts that limited knowledge can lead to market failure, is sceptical about money printing and generally places less faith in achieving mastery over market conditions through data.

Another tension within small-state philosophy concerns what should fill the gap thats left when the state retreats. For some, like Truss, omniscient market forces are the answer, and the goal is a society of empowered individuals market millennials and the like freed from limitations.

For others, the answer is non-market, but also non-state, forms of communal endeavour, like cooperatives. Think of localist Tory MPs like Neil OBrien, Michael Gove, Jesse Norman, urges Stears. Theyre not big state, or big market either, but more believers in bottom-up power. It is from this Tory cooperative tradition that he reckons some of the most forceful opposition to Trusss free-market experiment could come.

Finally, there is the tension between the libertarian claim to be on the side of the little guy and the dissenter, and the reality that Tuftonland and the Massachusetts Avenue small-state set are extremely close to big-business insiders. When Ronald Reagan came to power with his Heritage-approved plan in 1980, the consumer-rights advocate Ralph Nader called it right: Reagan really is much more of a corporatist than a conservative.

Over the course of his presidency corporate welfare, with subsidies benefiting large market insiders, flourished and the national debt tripled. Margaret Thatcher, though more averse to debt, provided established British firms with a similar boon in the UK, in the form of the privatisation of nationalised utilities and other state-owned assets.

Truss may wax poetic to rooms of supposedly Hayekian Washingtonians about market forces allowing the young to flower and the anti-establishment to flourish, but her actions and policies are recipes to lock in the market and societal power of the already powerful.

On the visit to Washington in 2018, in which she gave that speech, Liz Truss tellingly met not with small firms of entrepreneurs but the American Legislative Exchange Council (a lobbying body that has been accused of giving big firms influence in American politics). So far, her environment policies seem designed to serve the interests of big polluters rather than market insurgents in the green-energy sector; her deregulation push appears tailored to the interests of existing market insiders with big lobbying budgets; and her proposed tax cuts will certainly benefit the already rich, rather than the worst off. None of this is a hymn to individuality and non-conformity. It is corporatism.

The challenge now for Liz Trusss opponents, both inside the Conservative family and on the left, is to engage with these tensions and use them to expose the contradictions of the great unruly experiment being rolled out from Downing Street. Because to do so is to contest what is really driving it; to have a chance of changing the public debate and building a solid foundation for a different and better national project. Bad ideas make a much more obvious and persuasive target than bad intentions.

[See also: The making and meaning of Giorgia Meloni]

Read more:

Liz Truss and the rise of the libertarian right - The New Statesman