Daily Archives: August 18, 2021

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The prevalence of inorganic mercury in human cells increases during aging but decreases in the very old | Scientific Reports - Nature.com

Who does not want to live a long, happy and healthy life? Unfortunately, there is no one formula that promises to increase your lifespan. However, there are some factors that can aid longevity. Developing habits that are conducive to a long life does help. As per research published in the journal Frontiers in Ageing Neurosciences, one lifestyle habit has been highlighted as the way to achieve longevity. As per the research paper titled, "Human longevity is associated with regular sleep patterns, maintenance of slow the first step towards working for longer life". Here are the three main findings of the study. - The maintenance of slow-wave sleep in the oldest-old individuals when compared to older adults.- The existence of strictly regular sleep patterns among the oldest old individuals.

- The occurrence of a favourable lipid profile in these individuals.

The signature of sleep ECG in the brain of oldest-old individuals was also described. These findings support the role of sleep and lipid metabolism control in the maintenance of longevity in humans.

For the unversed, a lipid profile is a blood test that measures the amount of cholesterol and triglyceride in the blood. High levels of triglyceride in the blood can increase one's risk of heart disease.

Thus, regular sleep can reduce the risk of heart disease, which is a major killer worldwide.

Here are some simple steps to sleep better:

Make a sleep schedule and stick to itGo to bed and wake up at the same time every day. Plan to sleep for at least 7-8 hours each day.

Say no to caffeine and nicotine before bedtimeNicotine, caffeine and alcohol can disrupt your sleep. Also, avoid heavy and spicy foods to avoid indigestion and get a peaceful sleep.

Create a restful environmentDark, cool and quiet places without a buzz of electronic activity help one fall asleep. Do not put a TV in your bedroom.

Say NO to day-time naps

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Living longer: This one daily habit is linked to a longer lifespan (and is free) - Times of India

Chautauqua County is looking to authorize a new labor contract with its Deputy Sheriffs Association.

According to Human Services Director Jean Riley, the current contract is set to expire Dec. 31. The countys negotiation team has proposed a new four-year agreement. The union has voted on the proposed contract and unanimously approved it.

In terms of pay, the contact calls for a 3% wage increase in 2022, a 3% wage increase in 2023, a 2.5% increase in 2024, and a 2.5% increase in 2025. The proposed contract also calls for modifications to a step increment, modifications to longevity, modifications to employer and employee cost share of the health plan, and modifications to the retiree cash-out benefit.

The contract would cover 66 sheriffs deputies.

With the wage increases and the step adjustment, and the longevity modifications, we really looked at the market data. We had 11 other local police departments in other counties comprised the 11 units and we looked at their salaries. Chautauqua County was at the bottom in longevity compared to the other counties and local police departments. We were in the bottom three in overall wages, said Riley during the county Legislatures Administrative Services Committee meeting. The goal was really try to get the wages (up). Were not going to be the highest paying county. We had discussions about that.

See SHERIFF, Page A3

That wasnt the goal, but we would like to be more in line with some of the other local counties and police departments.

Riley said by increasing wages, it will help attract and retain officers. Weve seen a huge decline in applicants taking the exams. Right now we had 10 people in the county that are in the academy and thats the trickle down effect. Probably all 10 of those wont make it through the academy, which means we will have a severe shortage in the entry level rank of the Sheriffs Department. The main goal was to try to get the wages more in line so that we can attract and retain the officers that we hire, she said.

According to Riley, in 2022 the federal government is expecting a 2.7% increase in 2022 for government enforcement agencies and private employers are projecting a 3% increase. Were really not that far out of line throughout the four years of the contract. We would be attempting to try and get that salary level a little bit closer to an average wage, she said.

Budget Director Kitty Crow stated that this proposal would impact the countys budget by about $1.5 million over the course of the four-year contract. She added, The 3% and the 3% are consistent with other recently ratified contracts and then it goes to 2.5% in the later years.

Legislator John Davis, R-Frewsburg, expressed his support for the contract. I just appreciate the due diligence youve done in checking with 11 different bargaining units and other departments to make sure that we are not only in line but competitive as we would need to be to retain quality personnel in the department, he said.

Legislator Christine Starks, D-Fredonia, also expressed her support. Thank you for looking at both ends with bringing young in and protecting the experienced with their final average. Its appreciated, she said.

Legislator Bob Scudder, R-Fredonia, thanked Riley for having the proposal before the legislature now, instead of waiting until the end of the yaer. I really appreciate this being take care of before the expiration. Were used to having the kind of threat of someone else settling it or whatever. I dont like that pressure. I dont think anybody likes that pressure, he said.

The Administrative Services Committee unanimously backed the contract. The resolution heads to the full legislature for final approval. That meeting will take place Aug. 25.

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County eyes new labor contract with Deputy Sheriff's Association - Evening Observer

First, it's important to note that everyone reacts to stress differently and you can't pigeonhole entire age groups. But generally speaking, research shows that your ability to manage stress isn't staticit waxes and wanes over time.

Part of this is inevitable and biological. Hormonal fluctuations during puberty and perimenopause can make us particularly susceptible to stress during these periods, for example. Past circumstances also play a role. Some people have had to go through more periods of stress and trauma than others, which can affect the way they react to hardship.

But interestingly enough, there is a growing body of research finding that our ability to regulate our emotions seems to improve with age. Take one study out of Stanford University, which included 184 adults of various ages. Starting in 1993, participants were asked to record their emotions (both positive and negative) multiple times over the course of a week once every five years. This data collection lasted 15 years, and the results were published in 2011.

At the end of the study, researchers found that, overall, self-reported emotional well-being increased with age. As participants got older, their outlooks also tended to even out and there was less variability between positive and negative emotions. And finally, those who experienced relatively more positive than negative emotions in everyday life were more likely to have survived over the study period, suggesting a link between emotions and longevity. "The observation that emotional well-being is maintained and in some ways improves across adulthood is among the most surprising findings about human aging to emerge in recent years," the paper reads.

Now, this study didn't focus on how stress, in particular, affects mood over time. But some shorter-term research focused on stress has also found that older adults tend to maintain a positive mood in the face of it than younger ones do.

Neuropsychologist turned stress educator Cynthia Ackrill, M.D., suspects that this has to do with the widened viewpoint that age can bring. "You've been through a lot so you have a longer perspective to know that this too shall pass," she tells mbg.

AmyLorek, Ph.D., of the Center for Healthy Aging at Penn State Universityadds that, on average, older adults have accrued more self-awareness with time, giving them a better handle on their personal stressors.

"When we have a better understanding of our lives, we get better at selecting the things that are meaningful and important for us," Lorek says, adding that "older people actively opt out of things that are going to produce stress."

This may be true more generally, but again, Ackrill reminds us that stress is personal. While someone who has always practiced healthy stress management routines might find them strengthened with age, in her work she's seen the opposite to be true too. Someone with poor coping mechanisms might find that they have even more trouble handling stress as they get older. Some relaxing practices like exercise and social interaction can also become more difficult for older folks, especially if they have mobility issues or live alone.

The good news is that stress management is a skill that can always be trainedand it's never too late to practice it.

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The Link Between Stress & Longevity (And How To Stress Less As You Age) - mindbodygreen.com

Attitude and action to win over this past years challengesLive long and prosper. That famous line from the Vulcan Mr. Spock (played by Leonard Nimoy) should be your motto for the coming year. And heres how to do it despite the recent news about just how tough its been.

A study that looked at 29 folks, ages 90 to 100, uncovered two powerful secrets to longevity: acceptance of and recovery from things you cant change and an impulse to fight for the things you can alter. This is valuable information especially now that life expectancy in the U.S. is falling.

COVID-19 contributed to a decline in life expectancy from age 78.8 in 2019 to age 77.3 in 2020, according to the National Center for Health Statistics. In addition, more than 93,000 people died from drug overdoses a 30 percent increase over 2019. Homicides and deaths from diabetes and chronic liver disease also made major dents in longevity.

So what can you do to buck this trend?1. Get vaccinated pronto. 100 percent of the deaths from COVID-19 in June in Maryland were among nonvaccinated people.

2. Reassert control over your health. See your doctor for checkups and tests, especially if you have diabetes or other chronic conditions and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Reach out to support groups if you have alcohol- or substance-related disorders or suicidal thoughts and behavior.

3. Revamp your nutrition and your physical activity routine. Nutrition influences everything from longevity to mood. Theres great guidance in Dr. Mikes book What to Eat When and at DoctorOz.com, click on OZtube/Body.

If you arent getting vaccinated for yourself do it for your pet!When John Legend did the ad This Shot Is Our Shot to encourage people to get a COVID-19 vaccine and then put his inoculation up online, he was thinking about all the heartache that could be prevented by protecting folks from contracting the sometimes-fatal infection. But we bet John and his wife Chrissy Teigen who posted info on her shot on Facebook didnt know what a huge benefit their inoculations would be to their bulldogs Pablo, Penny and Pippa and their poodle named Petey.

It turns out that when a pet owner gets COVID-19, 67 percent of housecats and 43 percent of dogs also become infected. Thats the conclusion of researchers from Canadas University of Guelph, who did a study of 48 cats and 54 dogs from 77 households in which an owner had been diagnosed with COVID-19. Their paper, presented at the European Congress of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 2021, found that while most infected pets were asymptomatic, 20 percent of the dogs experienced lack of energy and loss of appetite, a cough or diarrhea; 27 percent of cats ended up with a runny nose and difficulty breathing.

The researchers advice: If you get COVID-19, stay away from your pet, and dont allow it to sleep with you. Also smart: If you have COVID-19 in your house, keep your pet away from other people and pets. Once a cat or dog becomes infected, pet-to-pet and pet-to-human transmission cannot be ruled out say the researchers.

How to stay cool in a heat waveMartha and the Vandellas sang about the torment of a Heat Wave in their 1963 hit: Its like a heat wave/burnin in my heart/ Its like a heat wave/Its tearin me apart. They did a pretty good job of predicting the effect of the scorching temperatures the U.S. has been experiencing this summer.

At least 67 weather stations from Washington State through New Mexico have recorded their hottest temperatures ever, according to the National Weather Service. And as risky as that is for the earths and peoples future, it also poses an immediate threat to you. High temperatures can cause dehydration, heatstroke, heat exhaustion and heat cramps; strain the cardiovascular and respiratory systems; and even increase interpersonal conflict. Research also shows strong links between climate crises and development of depression, anxiety and PTSD. So how can you stay cool, calm and collected when its steamy outside?

BIG NEWS: Dont use an electric fan when the indoor air temperature is over 95 degrees. The breeze can actually cause your body to gain heat instead of losing it!

If you have air conditioning, use it or go to an air-conditioned building or cooling center. For locations, Google cooling centers (and the name of your town). And (duh!) wear lightweight, light-colored, loose-fitting clothing.

In a cool environment, drink a tall glass of plain water every couple hours. In the heat, have a water bottle with you and sip every 10-15 minutes. Nothing sugary.

Exercise (keep doing it!) indoors in a cool place.

Think, sweat, think sweat that may delay dementiaBrute strength: 6 feet 9 inch tall Game of Thrones actor Hafthor Bjornsson set a world deadlifting record by lifting 1,104 pounds. Brain power: Dr. Sho Yano has an IQ of 200, started college at age 9 and earned an M.D. and Ph.D. by the time he was 21.

Imagine if such brains and brawn were found in one person. Well, they can be in you! And you dont have to hold the worlds record in both strength and intelligence to get the benefits of that combination: a reduced risk of Alzheimers and a healthier cardio and respiratory system. So heres how to harness the benefits.

A study in the journal Neurology followed 1,978 people, average age 80, and found that doing simple cognitive exercises such as reading, writing letters, playing card games and doing puzzles may delay the onset of Alzheimers disease by up to five years. And brain workouts later in life not as a younger person are what delayed the participants cognitive decline.

While youre strengthening your brain, pay attention to your body. Another research team found that one year of moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic walking two to three times a week for 30 minutes gradually increasing to four to five times weekly with two sessions of high intensity improves cardiorespiratory fitness, cerebral blood flow, memory and executive function in folks with mild cognitive impairment. The researchers say that also may reduce your risk of Alzheimers. We say combine brains and brawn and youll have a win-win well into your 80s and 90s!

The alpha and omega-3 of a longer lifeAn adult male bear on Kodiak Island in Alaska eats more than 6,000 pounds of salmon a year; females gobble up about half of that. And without any bagels! Fortunately, to get the remarkable benefits of eating omega-3-rich foods, you only need to eat a 3- to 6-ounce serving of salmon regularly. Dr. Mike loves salmon burgers even for breakfast. For lunch or dinner, he adds olives and broccoli or grilled vegetables.

A new study in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition looked at data from blood tests on more than 2,200 people over age 65 for an average of 11 years. The researchers from The Fatty Acid Research Institute in the United States and colleagues in universities in the U.S. and Canada found that folks with high levels of omega-3 fatty acids in their blood saw an increase in life expectancy of almost five years. Thats a huge increase in longevity from simply enjoying incredibly tasty foods.

The alpha and omega-3 of your choices: In every 3.5-ounce serving, wild salmon has 2,260 milligrams, herring 2,366 milligrams, sardines 1,480 milligrams and anchovies 2,113 milligrams. Flaxseed delivers 7,260 milligrams per tablespoon; and chia seeds and walnuts dish up 5,060 milligrams and 2,570 milligrams per ounce respectively. The benefit of adding these foods (in human size portions) is clear. According to the study author: It reinforces the idea that small changes in diet in the right direction can have a much more powerful effect than we think, and it is never too late or too early to make these changes.

Shades of brain healthIn 1986, when Cyndi Lauper sang True Colors I see your true colors shining through/I see your true colors and thats why I love you/So dont be afraid to let them show she had no idea just how important it was for everyone to put those true colors on display on their breakfast, lunch and dinner plates! But a new study in the journal Neurology reveals the power of colorful fruits and vegetables to protect you from cognitive decline as you get older.

The study, led by renowned Harvard nutrition researcher Walter Willet, followed almost 50,000 men and women, average age 51 at the start of the study, for 20 years. It revealed that eating flavonoid-rich, colorful foods such as apples; celery; red, blue and purple berries and grapes; hot and sweet peppers; eggplant; plums; carrots; citrus fruits; and even thyme and parsley can reduce your risk for encroaching dementia by 20 percent.

The study found that taking in 600 milligrams of flavonoids a day is what it takes to help combat cognitive decline 3.5 ounces of strawberries dishes up around 180 milligrams; a medium apple, 113 milligrams. In the U.S., adults only get about 200 to 250 milligrams a day, just a bit above the study group with the lowest intake and greatest risk of cognition problems.

If you make an effort to increase your intake, youll gain flavonoids neuroprotection. They also turn out to be anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic. So make your life a bowl full of cherries and other colorful flavonoid-rich foods.

Foods that damage your immune strengthKryptonite immobilizes Superman. Spider-Mans archenemy, Venom, changes from predator to weakling at the sight of a flame. And you? Well, it turns out certain foods have superpowers that weaken your immune system, transforming you from super-germ fighter to a target for everything from the common cold to COVID-19. The most immune-weakening consumables are:

Excess alcohol. Whether its a daily overdose or you binge once a week, youre increasing your risk for pneumonia and acute respiratory stress syndromes. That could potentially impact the outcome of COVID-19. It also leads to slower recovery from infection and post-op complications.

Too much salt. That causes a cascade of events, starting with the kidneys excreting excess sodium and ending with a reduction in your bodys ability to fight bacterial infections. As little as 6 extra grams a day has that effect. Your daily average should be below 3 grams a day.

Added sugar. As little as 3.5 ounces (thats in a 16-ounce Coke, a Big Mac and a slice of pecan pie) can reduce the ability of immune cells to neutralize bacteria for up to five hours.

Highly processed foods. Stripped of fiber, these alter the mix of microbes in your gut biome, where 70 percent to 80 percent of immune cells hang out, making them less able to battle viruses. Getting adequate fiber (25 to 30 grams daily) has been shown to strengthen your flu-fighting powers. Whole cereals, veggies and fruit, and beans are go-to sources plus they supply vitamins A and C, folate and bioactive compounds that also boost immune health.

Playing hooky from your statin? Look for some new alternativesThere are over 1 million students in the New York City public school system, and more than 22 percent of them are chronically absent from the classroom (pre-pandemic). Thats not good for their future. But even more adults around 50 percent fail to show up for their life-saving daily dose of a statin. Now, that really threatens their future.

Fortunately, there are new cholesterol-fighting medications that even your doc might not be aware of, according to a new JAMA Insights Clinical Update. So if youre not taking your prescribed statin or your lousy LDL cholesterol level is too high, ask about trying one of the following drugs on its own or with a statin. Most are covered by insurance if youre statin resistant or have had statin myopathy from two different statins.

PSCK-9 inhibitors. A monoclonal antibody administered by injection every two to four weeks, it reduces LDL by 50 percent to 60 percent and is well-tolerated. Check to see if your insurance covers it.Ezetimibe. An inexpensive generic, this cuts intestinal absorption of cholesterol and reduces LDL levels by 10 percent to 20 percent. Good in combo with a statin.

Bempedoic acid. It lowers LDL by about 20 percent with few side effects. Its not yet known how much it reduces the risk of atherosclerotic-related cardiovascular disease; check price and insurance coverage.

Icosapent ethyl. An omega-3 fatty acid that, when added to statin therapy for patients with high triglyceride levels, can reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk by 25 percent. Highly variable out-of-pocket cost.

As you age you may need fewer calories but more nutrientsThe worlds oldest magic trick, acetabula et calculi, reportedly dates back to early Rome. Today, its known as cups and balls and while there are endless variations, it all comes down to trying to figure out how small balls pop in and out of three upside-down cups unseen.

Making sure you get enough nutrition as you get older also requires a sleight of hand. You need extra nutrients to protect your strength, cognition, immune function and bone, eye and heart health, while you take in fewer calories daily. Here are four nutrients you should pack into every day.

Calcium: For bone health, aim for three servings a day of fat-free dairy, two servings daily of dark leafy greens like kale, spinach and collards. Also good: canned fish, like sardines.

Vitamin D: Get a good daily dose from fish such as salmon, mushrooms and fortified foods. Get your blood level checked: Most folks need a supplement too. It helps with immune function and bone strength.

Vitamin B12: Essential for nerve and blood cell health, its in fortified whole-grain cereals, lean meat and fish. A blood test will show if you need a supplement.

Protein: Whole grains and legumes, tofu, fish, nuts and lean poultry can deliver the protein you need to gain and maintain muscle mass and function. A 150- to 160-pound senior might need 65 to 70 grams daily. That could come from 6 ounces of salmon (40 grams), 3 ounces of white meat turkey (24 grams) and 1 cup of brown rice (5 grams).

The amazing power of diet to cool menopause hot flashesIn 2014, then 61-year-old Emma Thompson joked about her hot flashes as she accepted a best actress award from the National Board of Review for her role in Saving Mr. Banks: Its such a cold night. You know, its the first time Ive been actively grateful for the menopause. Sound familiar?

Around 85 percent of postmenopausal women say symptoms such as hot flashes, palpitations and insomnia define the months or years around the cessation of menstruation. Many just tough it out, because for years they were told to take hormone replacement therapy, then told, No, hormone therapy is too risky, then, that its really OK if done immediately after menopause and for no more than 10-20 years (the correct information in our opinion if you also take low-dose aspirin).

Too bad this new study, led by Physicians for Responsible Medicines founding president Neal Barnard, wasnt around sooner. Its a real game changer. During the 12-week study, the research published in the journal Menopause found that a plant-based diet, rich in soy, reduces moderate-to-severe hot flashes by 84 percent! Close to 60 percent of participants became totally free of moderate-to-severe hot flashes and women who experienced mild hot flashes saw them decrease by 79 percent.

The diet that produced these remarkable results was low-fat and vegan, based on fruits, vegetables, whole grains and legumes, reduced intake of added oils and fatty foods, and heres the kicker 1/2 cup of cooked non-GMO soybeans daily. In our humble opinion, this diet deserves to be adopted by any woman whos contending with menopause symptoms.

Mehmet Oz, M.D. is host of The Dr. Oz Show, and Mike Roizen, M.D. is Chief Wellness Officer and Chair of Wellness Institute at Cleveland Clinic. To live your healthiest, tune into The Dr. Oz Show or visit http://www.sharecare.com.

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Health tips from Dr. Oz and Dr. Roizen for 8-17-21 - The Dispatch - The Commercial Dispatch

In 2019, Guinness World Recordsawarded the "world's oldest animal on land" to a certain creature located in South Atlantic. The award was given to Jonathan, an enormous tortoise that had been living on the island of St. Helena for almost two centuries now.

Guinness World Records selected Jonathan as the winner of the title due to the tortoise being born during Queen Victoria's era way back in the 1830s. Jonathan was 80 years old when the famous ship Titanic sank, and by the time it got the world record, the tortoise was at its 187 years of age.

(Photo: Brady Knoll from Pexels)

Jonathan is an example of a creature under the family of turtles that had been recorded with staggering longevity. According to Florida SouthWestern State College biology expert and turtle ecologist Jordan Donini in a Live Sciencereport, sea turtles have a life span of 50 to 100 years, while box turtles are more enduring and can live beyond a century. Donini added that the maximum life span of most sea turtle species is still uncovered.

Turtles have the best longevity among the animal kingdom due to numerous biological and evolutionary explanations. In the Live Science interview, Arkansas State University reptile expert and physiology professor Lori Neuman-Lee said that in terms of evolution, the turtles have simply adapted to the common food chain activity that was being conducted for many years.

Some animals like snakes and raccoons are fond of turtle eggs, and the only way to escape this chain is for the turtles to pass down their genes. Along with procreation, turtles learned how to live longer than they do and breed consecutively.

The turtles' longevity in biological explanation, on the other hand, is much more complicated than their straightforward evolutionary history. According to Neuman-Lee, turtles are also composed of telomeres, a genetic material that houses genomes by acting as a protective cap on DNA's end strands or chromosomes.

ALSO READ: Congenital Heart Disease and Autism in Children Possibly Caused by Sperm Mutation in Older Men

The function of telomeres is to protect the chromosomes in case of cell division. However, these protective caps get smaller and degrade over time, creating an effect on the chromosomes and eventually halting DNA replication. What is devastating about this genetic process is that when DNA stops replicating, tumors and cell anomalies develop.

Telomeres in turtles, however, have a lower rate of decay. Compared to the protective caps in human chromosomes, the telomeres of turtles do not shorten quickly and can deflect any significant changes brought by a negative effect during DNA replication.

The turtles are not yet fully examined, and other factors that could explain their longevity are still a puzzle for experts. However, some scientific theories have been formulated regarding the turtle's long life. Through the series of experiments and observations, the scientists are able to build a hypothesis that will possibly help us understand the longevity of turtles in the future.

Among the investigations on the near-immortality feature of turtles is the recently published article in the journal arXiv, titled "Concurrent Evolution of Anti-Aging Gene Duplications and Cellular Phenotypes in Long-Lived Turtles."

RELATED ARTICLE: Plant-Animal Mutualism: Coevolution of Fruit Bats and Pepper Plants Linked to Biological Scent Sensory Ability

Check out more news and information on Biologyin Science Times.

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Turtles Can Live From the Victorian Era up to Present; Reason Behind the Longevity of Turtles Explained - Science Times

One of the most infamous psychology experiments ever conducted involved a carefully planned form of child abuse. The study rested on a simple scheme that would never get approved or funded today. In 1920, two researchers reported that they had repeatedly startled an unsuspecting infant, who came to be known as Little Albert, to see if he could be conditioned like Pavlovs dogs.

Psychologist John Watson of Johns Hopkins University and his graduate student Rosalie Rayner viewed their laboratory fearfest as a step toward strengthening a branch of natural science able to predict and control the behavior of people and other animals.

At first, the 9-month-old boy, identified as Albert B., sat placidly when the researchers placed a white rat in front of him. In tests two months later, one researcher presented the rodent, and just as the child brought his hand to pet it, the other scientist stood behind Albert and clanged a metal rod with a hammer. Their goal: to see if a child could be conditioned to associate an emotionally neutral white rat with a scary noise, just as Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov had trained dogs to associate the meaningless clicks of a metronome with the joy of being fed.

Pavlovs dogs slobbered at the mere sound of a metronome. Likewise, Little Albert eventually cried and recoiled at the mere sight of a white rat. The boys conditioned fear wasnt confined to rodents. He got upset when presented with other furry things a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat and a Santa Claus mask with a fuzzy beard.

Crucial details of the Little Albert experiment remain unclear or in dispute, such as who the child was, whether he had any neurological conditions and why the boy was removed from the experiment, possibly by his mother, before the researchers could attempt to reverse his learned fears. Also uncertain is whether he experienced any long-term effects of his experience.

Although experimental psychology originated in Germany in 1879, Watsons notorious study foreshadowed a messy, contentious approach to the science of us that has played out over the last 100 years. Warring scientific tribes armed with clashing assumptions about how people think and behave have struggled for dominance in psychology and other social sciences. Some have achieved great influence and popularity, at least for a while. Others have toiled in relative obscurity. Competing tribes have rarely joined forces to develop or integrate theories about how we think or why we do what we do; such efforts dont attract much attention.

But Watson, who had a second career as a successful advertising executive, knew how to grab the spotlight. He pioneered a field dubbed behaviorism, the study of peoples external reactions to specific sensations and situations. Only behavior counted in Watsons science. Unobservable thoughts didnt concern him.

Even as behaviorism took center stage Watson wrote a best-selling book on how to raise children based on conditioning principles some psychologists addressed mental life. American psychologist Edward Tolman concluded that rats learned the spatial layout of mazes by constructing a cognitive map of their surroundings (SN: 3/29/47, p. 199). Beginning in the 1910s, Gestalt psychologists studied how we perceive wholes differently than the sum of their parts, such as, depending on your perspective, seeing either a goblet or the profiles of two faces in the foreground of a drawing (SN: 5/18/29, p. 306).

And starting at the turn of the 20th century, Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, exerted a major influence on the treatment of psychological ailments through his writings on topics such as unconscious conflicts, neuroses and psychoses (SN: 7/9/27, p. 21). Freudian clinicians guided the drafting of the American Psychiatric Associations first official classification system for mental disorders. Later editions of the psychiatric bible dropped Freudian concepts as unscientific he had based his ideas on analyses of himself and his patients, not on lab studies.

Shortly after Freuds intellectual star rose, so did that of Harvard University psychologist B.F. Skinner, who could trace his academic lineage back to Watsons behaviorism. By placing rats and pigeons in conditioning chambers known as Skinner boxes, Skinner studied how the timing and rate of rewards or punishments affect animals ability to learn new behaviors. He found, for instance, that regular rewards speed up learning, whereas intermittent rewards produce behavior thats hard to extinguish in the lab. He also stirred up controversy by calling free will an illusion and imagining a utopian society in which communities doled out rewards to produce well-behaved citizens.

Skinners ideas, and behaviorism in general, lost favor by the late 1960s (SN: 9/11/71, p. 166). Scientists began to entertain the idea that computations, or statistical calculations, in the brain might enable thinking.

At the same time, some psychologists suspected that human judgments relied on faulty mental shortcuts rather than computer-like data crunching. Research on allegedly rampant flaws in how people make decisions individually and in social situations shot to prominence in the 1970s and remains popular today. In the last few decades, an opposing line of research has reported that instead, people render good judgments by using simple rules of thumb tailored to relevant situations.

Starting in the 1990s, the science of us branched out in new directions. Progress has been made in studying how emotional problems develop over decades, how people in non-Western cultures think and why deaths linked to despair have steadily risen in the United States. Scientific attention has also been redirected to finding new, more precise ways to define mental disorders.

No unified theory of mind and behavior unites these projects. For now, as social psychologists William Swann of the University of Texas at Austin and Jolanda Jetten of the University of Queensland in Australia wrote in 2017, perhaps scientists should broaden their perspectives to witness the numerous striking and ingenious ways that the human spirit asserts itself.

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Todays focus on studying peoples thoughts and feelings as well as their behaviors can be traced to a cognitive revolution that began in the mid-20th century.

The rise of increasingly powerful computers motivated the idea that complex programs in the brain guide information processing so that we can make sense of the world. These neural programs, or sets of formal rules, provide frameworks for remembering what weve done, learning a native language and performing other mental feats, a new breed of cognitive and computer scientists argued (SN: 11/26/88, p. 345).

Economists adapted the cognitive science approach to their own needs. They were already convinced that individuals calculate costs and benefits of every transaction in the most self-serving ways possible or should do so but cant due to human mental limitations. Financial theorists bought into the latter argument and began creating cost-benefit formulas for investing money that are far too complex for anyone to think up, much less calculate, on their own. Economist Harry Markowitz won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1990 for his set of mathematical rules, introduced in 1952, to allocate an investors money to different assets, with more cash going to better and safer bets.

But in the 1970s, psychologists began conducting studies documenting that people rarely think according to rational rules of logic beloved by economists. Psychologists Daniel Kahneman of Princeton University, who received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2002, and Amos Tversky of Stanford University founded that area of research, at first called heuristics (meaning mental shortcuts) and biases.

Kahneman and Tversky popularized the notion that decision makers rely on highly fallible mental shortcuts that can have dire consequences. For instance, people bet themselves into bankruptcy at blackjack tables based on what they easily remember big winners rather than on the vast majority of losers. University of Chicago economist Richard Thaler applied that idea to the study of financial behavior in the 1980s. He was awarded the 2017 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to the field of behavioral economics, which incorporated previous heuristics and biases research. Thaler has championed the practice of nudging, in which government and private institutions find ways to prod people to make decisions deemed to be in their best interest.

Better to nudge, behavioral economists argue, than to leave people to their potentially disastrous mental shortcuts. Nudges have been used, for instance, to enroll employees automatically in retirement savings plans unless they opt out. That tactic is aimed at preventing delays in saving money during prime work years that lead to financial troubles later in life.

Another nudge tactic attempts to reduce overeating of sweets and other unhealthy foods, and perhaps rising obesity rates as well, by redesigning cafeterias and grocery stores so that vegetables and other nutritious foods are easiest to see and reach.

As nudging gained in popularity, Kahneman and Tverskys research also stimulated the growth of an opposing research camp, founded in the 1990s by psychologist Gerd Gigerenzer, now director of the Harding Center for Risk Literacy at the University of Potsdam in Germany (SN: 7/13/96, p. 24).

Gigerenzer and colleagues study simple rules of thumb that, when geared toward crucial cues in real-world situations, work remarkably well for decision making. Their approach builds on ideas on decision making in organizations that won economist Herbert Simon the 1978 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (SN: 10/21/78, p. 277).

In the real world, people typically possess limited information and have little time to make decisions, Gigerenzer argues. Precise risks cant be known in advance or calculated based on whats happened in the past because many interacting factors can trigger unexpected events in, for example, ones life or the world economy. Amid so much uncertainty, simple but powerful decision tactics can outperform massive number-crunching operations such as Markowitzs investment formula. Using 40 years of U.S. stock market data to predict future returns, one study found that simply distributing money evenly among either 25 or 50 stocks usually yielded more money than 14 complex investment strategies, including Markowitzs (SN Online: 5/20/11).

Unlike Markowitzs procedure, dividing funds equally among diverse buys spreads out investment risks without mistaking accidental and random financial patterns in the past for good bets.

Gigerenzer and other investigators of powerful rules of thumb emphasize public education in statistical literacy and effective thinking strategies over nudging schemes. Intended effects of nudges are often weak and short-lived, they contend. Unintended effects can also occur, such as regrets over having accepted the standard investment rate in a companys savings plan because it turns out to be too low for ones retirement needs. Nudging people without educating them means infantilizing the public, Gigerenzer wrote in 2015.

As studies of irrational decision making took off around 50 years ago, so did a field of research with especially troubling implications. Social psychologists put volunteers into experimental situations that, in their view, exposed a human weakness for following the crowd and obeying authority. With memories of the Nazi campaign to exterminate Europes Jews still fresh, two such experiments became famous for showing the apparent ease with which people abide by heinous orders and abuse power.

First, Yale psychologist Stanley Milgram reported in 1963 that 65 percent of volunteers obeyed an experimenters demands to deliver what they thought were increasingly powerful and possibly lethal electric shocks to an unseen person who was actually working with Milgram as punishments for erring on word-recall tests. This widely publicized finding appeared to unveil a frightening willingness of average folks to carry out the commands of evil authorities (SN: 8/20/77, p. 117).

A disturbing follow-up to Milgrams work was the 1971 Stanford Prison Experiment, which psychologist Philip Zimbardo halted after six days due to escalating chaos among participants. Male college students assigned to play guards in a simulated prison had increasingly abused mock prisoners, stripping them naked and denying them food. Student prisoners became withdrawn and depressed.

Zimbardo argued that extreme social situations, such as assuming the role of a prison guard, will overwhelm self-control. Even mild-mannered college kids can get harsh when clad in guards uniforms and turned loose on their imprisoned peers, he said.

Milgrams and Zimbardos projects contained human drama and conflict that had widespread, and long-lasting, public appeal. A 1976 made-for-television movie based on Milgrams experiment, titled The Tenth Level, starred William Shatner. A 2010 movie inspired by the Stanford Prison Experiment, simply called The Experiment, starred Academy Award winners Adrien Brody and Forest Whitaker.

Despite the lasting cultural impact of the obedience-to-authority and prison experiments, some researchers have questioned Milgrams and Zimbardos conclusions. Milgram conducted 23 obedience experiments, although only one was publicized. Overall, volunteers usually delivered the harshest shocks when encouraged to identify with Milgrams scientific mission to understand human behavior. No one followed the experimenters order, You have no other choice, you must go on.

Indeed, people who follow orders to harm others are most likely to do so because they identify with a collective cause that morally justifies their actions, argued psychologists S. Alexander Haslam of the University of Queensland and Stephen Reicher of the University of St. Andrews in Scotland 40 years after the famous obedience study. Rather than blindly following orders, Milgrams volunteers cooperated with an experimenter when they viewed participation as scientifically important even if, as many later told Milgram, they didnt want to deliver shocks and felt bad after doing so.

Data from the 1994 ethnic genocide in the African nation of Rwanda supported that revised take on Milgrams experiment (SN: 8/19/17, p. 22). In a 100-day span, members of Rwandas majority Hutu population killed roughly 800,000 ethnic Tutsis. Researchers who later examined Rwandan government data on genocide perpetrators estimated that only about 20 percent of Hutu men and a much smaller percentage of Hutu women seriously injured or killed at least one person during the bloody episode. Most Hutus rejected pressure from political and community leaders to join the slaughter.

Neither did Zimbardos prisoners and guards passively accept their assigned roles. Prisoners at first challenged and rebelled against guards. When prisoners learned from Zimbardo that they would have to forfeit any money theyd already earned if they left before the experiment ended, their solidarity plummeted, and the guards crushed their resistance. Still, a majority of guards refused to wield power tyrannically, favoring tough-but-fair or friendly tactics.

In a second prison experiment conducted by Haslam and Reicher in 2001, guards were allowed to develop their own prison rules rather than being told to make prisoners feel powerless, as Zimbardo had done. In a rapid chain of events, conflict broke out between one set of guards and prisoners who formed a communal group that shared power and another with guards and prisoners who wanted to institute authoritarian rule. Morale in the communal group sank rapidly. Haslam stopped the experiment after eight days. Its the breakdown of groups and resulting sense of powerlessness that creates the conditions under which tyranny can triumph, Haslam concluded.

Milgrams and Zimbardos experiments set the stage for further research alleging that people cant control certain harmful attitudes and behaviors. A test of the speed with which individuals identify positive or negative words and images after being shown white and Black faces has become popular as a marker of unconscious racial bias. Some investigators regard that test as a window into hidden prejudice and implicit bias training has become common in many workplaces. But other scientists have questioned whether it truly taps into underlying bigotry. Likewise, stereotype threat, the idea that people automatically act consistently with negative beliefs about their race, sex or other traits when subtly reminded of those stereotypes, has also attracted academic supporters and critics.

It has taken a public health crisis to stimulate a level of cooperation across disciplines within and even outside the social sciences rarely reached in the last century. After a long stretch of increasing longevity, life spans of Americans have declined in recent years, fueled by drug overdoses and other deaths of despair among poor and working-class people plagued by job losses and dim futures.

Economists, psychologists, psychiatrists, sociologists, epidemiologists and physicians have begun to explore potential reasons for recent longevity losses, with an eye toward stemming a rising tide of early deaths.

Two Princeton University economists, Anne Case and Angus Deaton, highlighted this disturbing trend in 2015. After combing through U.S. death statistics, Case and Deaton observed that mortality rose sharply among middle-aged, non-Hispanic white people starting in the late 1990s. In particular, white, working-class people ages 45 to 54 were increasingly drinking themselves to death with alcohol, succumbing to opioid overdoses and committing suicide.

Job losses that resulted as mining declined and manufacturing plants moved offshore, high health care costs, disintegrating families and other stresses rendered more people than ever susceptible to deaths of despair, the economists argued. A similar trend had stoked deaths among inner-city Black people in the 1970s and 1980s.

If Case and Deaton were right, then researchers urgently needed to find a way to measure despair (SN: 1/30/21, p. 16). Two big ideas guided their efforts. First, dont assume depression or other diagnoses correspond to despair. Instead, treat despair as a downhearted state of mind. Tragic life circumstances beyond ones control, from sudden unemployment to losses of loved ones felled by COVID-19, can trigger demoralization and grief that have nothing to do with preexisting depression or any other mental disorder.

Second, study people throughout their lives to untangle how despair develops and prompts early deaths. Its reasonable to wonder, for instance, if opioid addiction more often afflicts young adults who have experienced despair since childhood, versus those who first faced despair in the previous year.

One preliminary despair scale consists of seven indicators of this condition, including feeling hopeless and helpless, feeling unloved and worrying often. This scale has shown promise as a way to identify those who are likely to think about or attempt suicide and to abuse opioids and other drugs.

Deaths of despair belong to a broader public health and economic crisis, concluded a 12-member National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine committee in 2021. Since the 1990s, drug overdoses, alcohol abuse, suicides and obesity-related conditions caused the deaths of nearly 6.7 million U.S. adults ages 25 to 64, the committee found. Whether obesity is rarely or often associated with despair is an open question.

Deaths from those causes hit racial minorities and working-class people of all races especially hard from the start. The COVID-19 pandemic further inflamed that mortality trend because people with underlying health conditions were especially vulnerable to the virus.

Perhaps findings with such alarming public health implications can inform policies that go viral, in the best sense of that word. Obesity-prevention programs for young people, expanded drug abuse treatment and stopping the flow of illegal opioids into the United States would be a start.

Whatever the politicians decide, the science of us has come a long way from Watson and Rayner instilling ratty fears in an unsuspecting infant. If Little Albert were alive today, he might smile, no doubt warily, at researchers working to extinguish real-life anguish.

Scientists and journalists share a core belief in questioning, observing and verifying to reach the truth. Science News reports on crucial research and discovery across science disciplines. We need your financial support to make it happen every contribution makes a difference.

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Psychology has struggled for a century to make sense of the mind - Science News Magazine

The recent civil unrest in South Africa, which began in the Durban area and lasted from July 9 to 17, left 337 dead and extensive damage in its wake. Coincidentally, on July 29, 87 Jewish South Africans made aliyah on an Ethiopian Airlines flight.

South African Jewry, which at its peak half a century ago topped 120,000, has now dropped to 50,000, according to the Kaplan Centre at the University of Cape Town.

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In the aftermath of the unrest, JNF-Australia organized a Zoom webinar on August 2, titled, The future of South African Jewry, which it asked me to moderate. The panelists were two top entrepreneurs Reeva Forman and Mike Abel Dr. Daniel Israel, a family practitioner in Johannesburg, and Mary Kluk, national president of the South African Jewish Board of Deputies.

Dr. Israel said the coronavirus pandemic had hit the community hard, causing many deaths among the elderly and preventing communal gatherings. I think that COVID-19 is the biggest challenge we have as a community in South Africa, he said.

Abel posted an open letter to South African expats in July, slamming the schadenfreude among some and asking for their love, concern and support instead. Agreeing with Forman that Zuma flamed the unrest, he said, the firewood was poverty.

The firewood is a 35% unemployment level in South Africa, and 70% youth unemployment. That is not a sustainable situation, so while Daniel looks at Covid as being the crisis in our country, I look at unemployment as being the crisis in our country, and unless we unlock the economy and develop a sharing economy and an inclusive culture, we will not be able to fix the country. But I am confident that this new crisis has precipitated a new opportunity for South Africa.

Kluk, a resident of Durban, related how the community had rallied to provide food and supplies to the elderly and needy. I have to say that the situation feels normal again, and human beings are incredibly resilient and our community is remarkable, she said. Each one of us wakes up every day and hopes in some way to be a contribution... to rebuild our country.

Some 41% of Jews surveyed by the Kaplan Centre in 2019 said they were making plans to leave South Africa 51% to Israel, 12% to the UK, 10% to the US, 10% to Australia, 4% to Canada and 13% elsewhere.

In this issue, Johannesburg businessman Arnold Garber argues that despite the challenges, many Jews who are able to leave South Africa choose not to.

Tzippi Hoffman, who with Alan Fischer wrote a 1988 book titled, The Jews of South Africa: What Future?, told me, The community will eternally be singled out for their Zionist ties while celebrated for individual contributions to the South African mosaic. Id say that the attrition rate for Jews leaving speaks for itself. While current Covid practices in South Africa may fuel immigration rates, long-term communal longevity will likely circle back to feeling comfortable as practicing Jews with a Zionistic bent.

I was left with the feeling that despite their governments increasingly anti-Israel stance, the Jews remaining in South Africa still believe they have a future. It is a myth that ostriches stick their heads in the sand. Neither do South African Jews.

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What is the future of the Jews of South Africa? - The Jerusalem Post

Culinary trends come and go, but it seems like fermented foods popularity is here to stay. Fermented food is easy to buy and simple to makeplus, its delicious, nutritious, and can help reduce kitchen waste. So, whether youre a die-hard sauerkraut enthusiast or a curious novice, you might be wondering what the fermentation process actually involves. How does the science work? And is fermented food and drink really as good for you as people say?

Natural fermentation dates back thousands of years to human prehistory, and some of the earliest evidence indicates that people have enjoyed fermented alcoholic beverages since at least 13,000 BC. But according to the outdoor museum Living History Farms, humans first forays into fermentation may go back even further than this.

Some of humanitys early attempts aimed to preserve easily-spoiled food sources such as dairy would have resulted in natural fermentation, producing yogurt. Its likely that North Africa was home to the first-ever yogurt makers, thanks to the regions high temperatures and the microflora already present in goat, sheep, camel, and cow milk.

In general, fermented foods are a central part of human history, and people have used the science of fermentation to produce everything from beer to bean curd. Today, fermentation as a natural preservative could even help reduce the worlds food waste at an industrial level if transformed into new and shelf-stable fermented products such as sauces and snacks.

Furthermore, the Good Food Institute (GFI) has said that fermentation could become the third pillar of alternative protein productionrevolutionizing the flavor, texture, appearance, and sustainability of plant-based meat, eggs, and dairy products in the coming years.

The chemical process of fermentation involves the breaking down of one substance into a simpler substance via enzymes. In food and beverage manufacture, fermentation can refer to any use of microorganisms to bring about desirable chemical changes in ingredients.

This could describe the brewing of alcohol, the preserving of food, or the development of new flavors. This is because fermentation can alter the taste and nutritional profile of staple ingredients along with their longevity.

The fermentation process itself occurs with the introduction of beneficial microorganisms (such as bacteria and yeast) to an ingredient, alongside the removal of oxygen. Temperature also plays a critical role, though this varies from recipe to recipe (and sometimes region to region).

For example, the majority of modern, home vegetable fermentation requires some time at room temperature for the enzymes to get to work before refrigeration. This then slows the process down and allows for further safe storage.

French chemist Louis Pasteur (yes, the process of pasteurization is named after him) first discovered the connection between yeast and fermentation in the mid-1800s. He thereby created zymology, the science of fermentation, as we know it today.

At this time, the process was purely a way to preserve and extend the longevity of stored food. Experts would not recognize its various health benefits until the early 1900s when Russian bacteriologist Elie Metchnikoff noted the relative unusual longevity of Bulgarian citizens for the time (up to 87 years).

Fermented food really is good for you, but the jury is still out on whether it can actually extend your life. As with all health foods, fermentation is not a cure-allbut it does give your stomachs natural bacteria (and thereby your immune system) a nutrient-dense and delicious boost.

Some research indicates that fermented foods can have antimicrobial, anti-carcinogenic, anti-allergenic, and blood-pressure-lowering effects. At the very least, the probiotics (or good bacteria) contained in foods like kombucha help your body digest and absorb other nutrients.

There are approximately 100 trillion bacteria in a persons intestinal system, and everyones microbiota is different. Humans relationship with this bacteria is symbiotic, and keeping your gut healthy (by taking exercise, avoiding stress, consuming less sugar, and eating probiotic foods) can have a direct, positive impact on your overall wellbeing, including mood.

Plus, fermented foods are rich in vitamins. Sauerkraut is high in fiber, iron, magnesium, calcium, and vitamins B, A, K, and C, while miso is rich in vitamins B, E, and K, plus folic acid and essential minerals.

In addition, fermented foods are simply easier for your body to digest. The fermentation process even makes ingredients such as soy and gluten (which many people have trouble digesting comfortably) more manageable. For example, tempeh is easier on the digestive system than processed tofu, and sourdough bread is better for those with a gluten sensitivity.

Simple fermentation techniques make preserving and flavoring fruit, vegetables, grain, nuts, and legumes easy. But there are a surprisingly large number of popular ingredients that already incorporate fermentation. In fact, you may have been eating fermented foods for your entire life without realizing.

One of the most popular foods of the moment is kombucha, a fermented tea-based drink that combines sugar with a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY). Its a far cry from sauerkraut, but the naturally fizzy beverage has that distinctive tang of fermentation.

The probiotic drink originated in 220 BC Northeast China (Manchuria) and was popular for its perceived healing benefits and tart flavor, much like today. However, its worth noting that a lack of regulation and empirical evidence casts some doubt on some bolder claims.

For example, some say that kombucha can help tackle health problems such as arthritis and depression. While fermented foods can be nutritiousand a well-balanced diet undeniably supports health improvementsthey are not a replacement for medical treatment.

Tempeh is another fermented product you may have consumed without realizing it. The traditional dish involves the inoculation of cooked soybeans with rhizopus mold to create a nutrient-dense loaf of mycelium. (Note: both miso and natt use fermented soybeans and live cultures.) Tempeh originates from Indonesia and makes an easy swap for tofu and other plant proteins.

Modern brunch staple sourdough is actually the single oldest form of leavened bread in human history. Much like the creation of yogurt, the first sourdough starter may have been created by accident. Sourdough bread is delicious and comes with several benefits that conventional bread does not, such as a lower glycemic index and reduced gluten.

DIY fermentation is simple, affordable, and satisfying. The easiest ingredients to ferment at home are fresh vegetables, as in dishes such as sauerkraut (cabbage and caraway seeds), kimchi (cabbage, radish, and spices), and beet kvass (beets, raisins, and sugar).

Lacto-fermented fruit and lacto-fermented veggies are also simple to make. They rely on naturally occurring lactobacillus bacteria for fermentation and taste tangy rather than vinegary. Fermented fruit is both sweet and sour, a perfect accompaniment to desserts, yogurt, and smoothies.

Sterilized jars, your desired fruit or vegetables, salt, and spices, are all you need for basic home fermentation. You can sterilize jars easily by washing and then drying them in a preheated oven for 15 to 20 minutes, or by boiling them thoroughly on the stove.

Cut your ingredients into small, even pieces, as preferred. For sauerkraut, many recipes suggest a salt rub to start off the cabbage. Once the shreds have separated from their own brine, its time to stir through the spices and place the mixture in jars. Remove all the oxygen by topping with cling film or a piece of parchment paper.

To learn more about fermenting (and pickling) at home, check out LIVEKINDLYs in-depth guide here. To find out about the need to prevent unnecessary food waste, read on here.

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How Fermented Food Works Its Magic on Your Gut - LIVEKINDLY