Monthly Archives: November 2016

FREE Artificial Intelligence Essay – Example Essays

Posted: November 23, 2016 at 10:00 pm

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the area of computer science focusing on creating machines that can engage on behaviors that humans consider intelligent. The ability to create intelligent machines has intrigued humans since ancient times and today with the advent of the computer and 50 years of research into AI programming techniques, the dream of smart machines is becoming a reality. Researchers are creating systems which can mimic human thought, understand speech, beat the best human chess player, and countless other feats never before possible. I focused on this area for my capstone because I thought it would be an original idea and also would be interesting to investigate and determine if artificial intelligence is a good concept or a bad to the human life. I wish to accomplish how it came about, the reasoning behind artificial intelligence, and where I think it will go in the future based on my research on this topic. . The Story Behind it All. Artificial intelligence has been around for longer then most people think. We all think that artificial intelligence has been in research for about 20 years or so. In all actuality after thousands of years of fantasy, the appearance of the digital computer, with its native, human-like ability to process symbols, made it seem that the myth of the man-made intelligence would finally become reality. The history of artificial intelligence all started in the 3rd century BC. Chinese engineer Mo Ti created mechanical birds, dragons, and warriors. Technology was being used to transform myth into reality.1. Much later, mechanical ducks and humanoid figures, crafted by clockmakers, endlessly amused the Royal courts of the Enlightenment-age Europe. It has long been possible to make machines that looked and moved in human-like ways.3 Machines that could spook and awe the audience - but creating a model of the mind, in that day in time were off limits.

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FREE Artificial Intelligence Essay - Example Essays

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What does artificial intelligence mean? – Definitions.net

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Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence is technology and a branch of computer science that studies and develops intelligent machines and software. Major AI researchers and textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents", where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1955, defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines". AI research is highly technical and specialised, deeply divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other. Some of the division is due to social and cultural factors: subfields have grown up around particular institutions and the work of individual researchers. AI research is also divided by several technical issues. There are subfields which are focused on the solution of specific problems, on one of several possible approaches, on the use of widely differing tools and towards the accomplishment of particular applications. The central problems of AI research include reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence is still among the field's long term goals. Currently popular approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence and traditional symbolic AI. There are an enormous number of tools used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, logic, methods based on probability and economics, and many others.

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What does artificial intelligence mean? - Definitions.net

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Artificial Intelligence Lockheed Martin

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For the commander facing an unconventional adversary; for the intelligence analyst trying to find the needle in the data haystack; or for the operator trying to maintain complex systems under degraded conditions or attack, todays warfighter faces problems of scale, complexity pace and resilience that outpace unaided human decision making. Artificial Intelligence (AI) provides the technology to augment human analysis and decision makers by capturing knowledge in computers in forms that can be re-applied in critical situations. This gives users the ability to react to problems that require analysis of massive data; demand fast-paced analysis and decision making, and that demand resilience in uncertain and changing conditions. AI offers the technology to change the human role from in-the-loop controller to on-the-loop thinker who can focus on a more reflective assessment of problems and strategies, guiding rather than being buried in execution detail. By creating technology that allows captured knowledge to continually evolve to incorporate new experience or changing user's needs, AI-based analysis and decision support tools can continue to assist the user long after its original knowledge becomes obsolete.

Key Technologies Artificial Intelligence is focused on the research, development, and transition of technologies that enable dynamic and real-time changes to knowledge bases that allow for informed, agile, and coordinated Command and Control decisions

The Artificial Intelligence group has an emphasis in four key thrust areas:

Artificial Intelligence is one of several Research Areas for the Informatics Laboratory.

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Artificial Intelligence Lockheed Martin

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Artificial Intelligence in Medicine: An Introduction

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Acknowledgement The material on this page is taken from Chapter 19 of Guide to Medical Informatics, the Internet and Telemedicine (First Edition) by Enrico Coiera (reproduced here with the permission of the author). Introduction

From the very earliest moments in the modern history of the computer, scientists have dreamed of creating an 'electronic brain'. Of all the modern technological quests, this search to create artificially intelligent (AI) computer systems has been one of the most ambitious and, not surprisingly, controversial.

It also seems that very early on, scientists and doctors alike were captivated by the potential such a technology might have in medicine (e.g. Ledley and Lusted, 1959). With intelligent computers able to store and process vast stores of knowledge, the hope was that they would become perfect 'doctors in a box', assisting or surpassing clinicians with tasks like diagnosis.

With such motivations, a small but talented community of computer scientists and healthcare professionals set about shaping a research program for a new discipline called Artificial Intelligence in Medicine (AIM). These researchers had a bold vision of the way AIM would revolutionise medicine, and push forward the frontiers of technology.

AI in medicine at that time was a largely US-based research community. Work originated out of a number of campuses, including MIT-Tufts, Pittsburgh, Stanford and Rutgers (e.g. Szolovits, 1982; Clancey and Shortliffe, 1984; Miller, 1988). The field attracted many of the best computer scientists and, by any measure, their output in the first decade of the field remains a remarkable achievement.

In reviewing this new field in 1984, Clancey and Shortliffe provided the following definition:

Much has changed since then, and today this definition would be considered narrow in scope and vision. Today, the importance of diagnosis as a task requiring computer support in routine clinical situations receives much less emphasis (J. Durinck, E. Coiera, R. Baud, et al., "The Role of Knowledge Based Systems in Clinical Practice," in: eds Barahona and Christenen, Knowledge and Decisions in Health Telematics - The Next Decade, IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 199- 203, 1994), So, despite the focus of much early research on understanding and supporting the clinical encounter, expert systems today are more likely to be found used in clinical laboratories and educational settings, for clinical surveillance, or in data-rich areas like the intensive care setting. For its day, however, the vision captured in this definition of AIM was revolutionary.

After the first euphoria surrounding the promise of artificially intelligent diagnostic programmes, the last decade has seen increasing disillusion amongst many with the potential for such systems. Yet, while there certainly have been ongoing challenges in developing such systems, they actually have proven their reliability and accuracy on repeated occasions (Shortliffe, 1987).

Much of the difficulty has been the poor way in which they have fitted into clinical practice, either solving problems that were not perceived to be an issue, or imposing changes in the way clinicians worked. What is now being realised is that when they fill an appropriately role, intelligent programmes do indeed offer significant benefits. One of the most important tasks now facing developers of AI-based systems is to characterise accurately those aspects of medical practice that are best suited to the introduction of artificial intelligence systems.

In the remainder of this chapter, the initial focus will thus remain on the different roles AIM systems can play in clinical practice, looking particularly to see where clear successes can be identified, as well as looking to the future. The next chapter will take a more technological focus, and look at the way AIM systems are built. A variety of technologies including expert systems and neural networks will be discussed. The final chapter in this section on intelligent decision support will look at the way AIM can support the interpretation of patient signals that come off clinical monitoring devices.

In his opinion, there were no ultimately useful measures of intelligence. It was sufficient that an objective observer could not tell the difference in conversation between a human and a computer for us to conclude that the computer was intelligent. To cancel out any potential observer biases, Turing's test put the observer in a room, equipped with a computer keyboard and screen, and made the observer talk to the test subjects only using these. The observer would engage in a discussion with the test subjects using the printed word, much as one would today by exchanging e-mail with a remote colleague. If a set of observers could not distinguish the computer from another human in over 50% of cases, then Turing felt that one had to accept that the computer was intelligent.

Another consequence of the Turing test is that it says nothing about how one builds an intelligent artefact, thus neatly avoiding discussions about whether the artefact needed to in anyway mimic the structure of the human brain or our cognitive processes. It really didn't matter how the system was built in Turing's mind. Its intelligence should only to be assessed based upon its overt behaviour.

There have been attempts to build systems that can pass Turing's test in recent years. Some have managed to convince at least some humans in a panel of judges that they too are human, but none have yet passed the mark set by Turing.

An alternative approach to strong AI is to look at human cognition and decide how it can be supported in complex or difficult situations. For example, a fighter pilot may need the help of intelligent systems to assist in flying an aircraft that is too complex for a human to operate on their own. These 'weak' AI systems are not intended to have an independent existence, but are a form of 'cognitive prosthesis' that supports a human in a variety of tasks.

AIM systems are by and large intended to support healthcare workers in the normal course of their duties, assisting with tasks that rely on the manipulation of data and knowledge. An AI system could be running within an electronic medical record system, for example, and alert a clinician when it detects a contraindication to a planned treatment. It could also alert the clinician when it detected patterns in clinical data that suggested significant changes in a patient's condition.

Along with tasks that require reasoning with medical knowledge, AI systems also have a very different role to play in the process of scientific research. In particular, AI systems have the capacity to learn, leading to the discovery of new phenomena and the creation of medical knowledge. For example, a computer system can be used to analyse large amounts of data, looking for complex patterns within it that suggest previously unexpected associations. Equally, with enough of a model of existing medical knowledge, an AI system can be used to show how a new set of experimental observations conflict with the existing theories. We shall now examine such capabilities in more detail.

Expert or knowledge-based systems are the commonest type of AIM system in routine clinical use. They contain medical knowledge, usually about a very specifically defined task, and are able to reason with data from individual patients to come up with reasoned conclusions. Although there are many variations, the knowledge within an expert system is typically represented in the form of a set of rules.

There are many different types of clinical task to which expert systems can be applied.

Generating alerts and reminders. In so-called real-time situations, an expert system attached to a monitor can warn of changes in a patient's condition. In less acute circumstances, it might scan laboratory test results or drug orders and send reminders or warnings through an e-mail system.

Diagnostic assistance. When a patient's case is complex, rare or the person making the diagnosis is simply inexperienced, an expert system can help come up with likely diagnoses based on patient data.

Therapy critiquing and planning. Systems can either look for inconsistencies, errors and omissions in an existing treatment plan, or can be used to formulate a treatment based upon a patient's specific condition and accepted treatment guidelines.

Agents for information retrieval. Software 'agents' can be sent to search for and retrieve information, for example on the Internet, that is considered relevant to a particular problem. The agent contains knowledge about its user's preferences and needs, and may also need to have medical knowledge to be able to assess the importance and utility of what it finds.

Image recognition and interpretation. Many medical images can now be automatically interpreted, from plane X-rays through to more complex images like angiograms, CT and MRI scans. This is of value in mass-screenings, for example, when the system can flag potentially abnormal images for detailed human attention.

There are numerous reasons why more expert systems are not in routine use (Coiera, 1994). Some require the existence of an electronic medical record system to supply their data, and most institutions and practices do not yet have all their working data available electronically. Others suffer from poor human interface design and so do not get used even if they are of benefit.

Much of the reluctance to use systems simply arose because expert systems did not fit naturally into the process of care, and as a result using them required additional effort from already busy individuals. It is also true, but perhaps dangerous, to ascribe some of the reluctance to use early systems upon the technophobia or computer illiteracy of healthcare workers. If a system is perceived by those using it to be beneficial, then it will be used. If not, independent of its true value, it will probably be rejected.

Happily, there are today very many systems that have made it into clinical use. Many of these are small, but nevertheless make positive contributions to care. In the next two sections, we will examine some of the more successful examples of knowledge-based clinical systems, in an effort to understand the reasons behind their success, and the role they can play.

In the first decade of AIM, most research systems were developed to assist clinicians in the process of diagnosis, typically with the intention that it would be used during a clinical encounter with a patient. Most of these early systems did not develop further than the research laboratory, partly because they did not gain sufficient support from clinicians to permit their routine introduction.

It is clear that some of the psychological basis for developing this type of support is now considered less compelling, given that situation assessment seems to be a bigger issue than diagnostic formulation. Some of these systems have continued to develop, however, and have transformed in part into educational systems.

DXplain is an example of one of these clinical decision support systems, developed at the Massachusetts General Hospital (Barnett et al., 1987). It is used to assist in the process of diagnosis, taking a set of clinical findings including signs, symptoms, laboratory data and then produces a ranked list of diagnoses. It provides justification for each of differential diagnosis, and suggests further investigations. The system contains a data base of crude probabilities for over 4,500 clinical manifestations that are associated with over 2,000 different diseases.

DXplain is in routine use at a number of hospitals and medical schools, mostly for clinical education purposes, but is also available for clinical consultation. It also has a role as an electronic medical textbook. It is able to provide a description of over 2,000 different diseases, emphasising the signs and symptoms that occur in each disease and provides recent references appropriate for each specific disease.

Decision support systems need not be 'stand alone' but can be deeply integrated into an electronic medical record system. Indeed, such integration reduces the barriers to using such a system, by crafting them more closely into clinical working processes, rather than expecting workers to create new processes to use them.

The HELP system is an example of this type of knowledge-based hospital information system, which began operation in 1980 (Kuperman et al., 1990; Kuperman et al., 1991). It not only supports the routine applications of a hospital information system (HIS) including management of admissions and discharges and order entry, but also provides a decision support function. The decision support system has been actively incorporated into the functions of the routine HIS applications. Decision support provide clinicians with alerts and reminders, data interpretation and patient diagnosis facilities, patient management suggestions and clinical protocols. Activation of the decision support is provided within the applications but can also be triggered automatically as clinical data is entered into the patient's computerised medical record.

One of the most successful areas in which expert systems are applied is in the clinical laboratory. Practitioners may be unaware that while the printed report they receive from a laboratory was checked by a pathologist, the whole report may now have been generated by a computer system that has automatically interpreted the test results. Examples of such systems include the following.

Laboratory expert systems usually do not intrude into clinical practice. Rather, they are embedded within the process of care, and with the exception of laboratory staff, clinicians working with patients do not need to interact with them. For the ordering clinician, the system prints a report with a diagnostic hypothesis for consideration, but does not remove responsibility for information gathering, examination, assessment and treatment. For the pathologist, the system cuts down the workload of generating reports, without removing the need to check and correct reports.

All scientists are familiar with the statistical approach to data analysis. Given a particular hypothesis, statistical tests are applied to data to see if any relationships can be found between different parameters. Machine learning systems can go much further. They look at raw data and then attempt to hypothesise relationships within the data, and newer learning systems are able to produce quite complex characterisations of those relationships. In other words they attempt to discover humanly understandable concepts.

Learning techniques include neural networks, but encompass a large variety of other methods as well, each with their own particular characteristic benefits and difficulties. For example, some systems are able to learn decision trees from examples taken from data (Quinlan, 1986). These trees look much like the classification hierarchies discussed in Chapter 10, and can be used to help in diagnosis.

Medicine has formed a rich test-bed for machine learning experiments in the past, allowing scientists to develop complex and powerful learning systems. While there has been much practical use of expert systems in routine clinical settings, at present machine learning systems still seem to be used in a more experimental way. There are, however, many situations in which they can make a significant contribution.

Shortliffe EH. The adolescence of AI in medicine: will the field come of age in the '90s? Artif Intell Med. 1993 Apr;5(2):93-106. Review.

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Artificial Intelligence in Medicine: An Introduction

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The Non-Technical Guide to Machine Learning & Artificial …

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Shivon Zilis and James Cham, who invest in machine learning-related companies for Bloomberg Beta, recently created a machine intelligence market landscape.

Below, you can find links to the 317+ companies in the landscape (and a few more), and play around with some apps that are applying machine learning in interesting ways.

Algocian Captricity Clarifai Cortica Deepomatic DeepVision Netra Orbital Insight Planet Spaceknow

Capio Clover Intelligence Gridspace MindMeld Mobvoi Nexidia Pop Up Archive Quirious.ai TalkIQ Twilio

Alluvium C3 IoT Planet OS Maana KONUX Imubit GE Predix ThingWorx Uptake Sentenai Preferred Networks

Alation Arimo Cycorp

Deckard.ai Digital Reasoning IBM Watson Kyndi Databricks Sapho

Bottlenose CB Insights DataFox Enigma

Intelligent Layer Mattermark Predata Premise Quid Tracxn

ActionIQ Clarabridge Eloquent Labs Kasisto Preact Wise.io Zendesk

6sense AppZen Aviso Clari Collective[i] Fusemachines InsideSales Salesforce Einstein Zensight

AirPR BrightFunnel CogniCor Lattice LiftIgniter Mintigo msg.ai Persado Radius Retention Science

Cylance Darktrace Deep Instinct Demisto Drawbridge Networks Graphistry LeapYear SentinelOne SignalSense Zimperium

Entelo Algorithmia HiQ HireVue SpringRole Textio Unitive Wade & Wendy

AdasWorks Auro Robotics Drive.ai Google Mobileye nuTonomy Tesla Uber Zoox

Airware DJI DroneDeploy Lily Pilot AI Labs Shield AI Skycatch Skydio

Clearpath Robotics Fetch Robotics Harvest Automation JaybridgeRobotics Kindred AI Osaro Rethink Robotics

Amazon Alexa Apple Siri Facebook M Google Now/Allo Microsoft Cortana Replika

Alien Labs Butter.ai Clara Labs

Deckard.ai SkipFlag Slack Sudo Talla x.ai Zoom.ai

Abundant Robotics AgriData Blue River Technology Descartes Labs Mavrx Pivot Bio TerrAvion Trace Genomics Tule UDIO

AltSchool Content Technologies (CTI) Coursera Gradescope Knewton Volley

AlphaSense Bloomberg Cerebellum Capital Dataminr iSentium Kensho Quandl Sentient

Beagle Blue J Legal Legal Robot Ravel Law ROSS Intelligence Seal

Acerta ClearMetal Marble NAUTO PitStop Preteckt Routific

Calculario Citrine Eigen Innovations Ginkgo Bioworks Nanotronics Sight Machine Zymergen

Affirm Betterment Earnest Lendo Mirador Tala (a InVenture) Wealthfront ZestFinance

Atomwise CareSkore Deep6 Analytics IBM Watson Health Numerate Medical Oncora pulseData Sentrian Zephyr Health

DreamUp Vision

3Scan Arterys Bay Labs Butterfly Network Enlitic Google DeepMind Imagia

Atomwise Color Genomics Deep Genomics Grail iCarbonX Luminist Numerate Recursion Pharmaceuticals Verily Whole Biome

Automat Howdy Kasisto KITT.AI Maluuba Octane AI OpenAI Gym Semantic Machines

Ayasdi BigML Dataiku DataRobot Domino Data Lab Kaggle RapidMiner Seldon

Spark Beyond Yhat Yseop

Bonsai ScaleContext Relevant Cycorp Datacratic deepsense.io Geometric Intelligence H2O.ai HyperScience Loop AI Labs minds.ai Nara LogicsReactive Scaled Inference Skymind SparkCognition

Agolo AYLIEN Cortical.io Lexalytics Loop AI Labs Luminoso MonkeyLearn Narrative Science spaCy

AnOdot Bonsai

Deckard.ai Fuzzy.ai Hyperopt Kite Layer 6 AI Lobe.ai RainforestQA SignifAI SigOpt

Amazon Mechanical Turk CrowdAI CrowdFlower Datalogue DataSift diffbot Enigma Import.io Paxata Trifacta WorkFusion

Amazon DSSTNE Apache Spark Azure ML Baidu Caffe Chainer DeepLearning4j H2O.ai Keras Microsoft CNTK Microsoft DMTK MLlib MXNet Nervana Neon PaddlePaddle scikit-learn TensorFlow Theano Torch7 Weka

1026 Labs Cadence Cirrascale Google TPU Intel (Nervana) Isocline KNUPATH NVIDIA DGX-1/Titan X Qualcomm Tenstorrent Tensilica

Cogitai Kimera Knoggin NNAISENSE Numenta OpenAI Vicarious

Andrew Ng Chief Scientist of Baidu; Chairman and Co-Founder of Coursera; Stanford CS faculty.

Sam Altman President, YC Group, OpenAI co-chairman.

Harry Shum EVP, Microsoft AI and Research.

Geoffrey Hinton The godfather of deep learning.

Samiur Rahman CEO of Canopy. Former Data Engineering Lead at Mattermark.

Jeff Dean Google Senior Fellow at Google, Inc. Co-founder and leader of Googles deep learning research and engineering team.

Eric Horvitz Technical Fellow at Microsoft Research

Denny Britz Deep Learning at Google Brain.

Tom Mitchell Computer scientist and E. Fredkin University Professor at the Carnegie Mellon University.

Chris Dixon General Partner at Andreessen Horowitz.

Hilary Mason Founder at FastForwardLabs. Data Scientist in Residence at Accel.

Elon Musk Tesla Motors, SpaceX, SolarCity, PayPal & OpenAI.

Kirk Borne The Principal Data Scientist at Booz Allen, PhD Astrophysicist.

Peter Skomoroch Co-Founder & CEO SkipFlag. Previously Principal Data Scientist at LinkedIn, Engineer at AOL.

Paul Barba Chief Scientist at Lexalytics.

Andrej Karpathy Research scientist at OpenAI. Previously CS PhD student at Stanford.

Monica Rogati Former VP of Data Jawbone & LinkedIn data scientist.

Xavier Amatriain Leading Engineering at Quora. Netflix alumni.

Mike Gualtieri Forrester VP & Principal Analyst.

Fei-Fei Li Professor of Computer Science, Stanford University, Director of Stanford AI Lab.

David Silver Royal Society University Research Fellow.

Nando de Freitas Professor of Computer ScienceFellow, Linacre College.

Roberto Cipolla Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge.

Gabe Brostow Associate Professor in Computer Science at Londons Global University.

Arthur Gretton Associate Professor with the Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit.

Ingmar Posner University Lecturer in Engineering Science at the University of Oxford.

Pieter Abbeel Associate Professor, UC Berkeley, EECS. Berkeley Artificial Intelligence Research (BAIR) laboratory. UC Berkeley Center for Human Compatible AI. Co-Founder Gradescope.

Josh Wills Slack Data Engineering and Apache Crunch committer.

Noah Weiss Head of Search, Learning, & Intelligence at Slack in NYC. Former SVP of Product at foursquare + Google PM on structured search.

Michael E. Driscoll Founder, CEO Metamarkets. Investor at Data Collective

Drew Conway Founder and CEO of Alluvium.

Sean Taylor Facebook Data Science Team

Demis Hassabis Co-Founder & CEO, DeepMind.

Randy Olson Senior Data Scientist at Penn Institute for Biomedical Informatics.

Shivon Zilis Partner at Bloomberg Beta where she focuses on machine intelligence companies.

Adam Gibson Founder of Skymind.

Alexandra Suich Technology reporter for The Economist.

Anthony Goldblum Co-founder and CEO of Kaggle.

Avi Goldfarb Professor at Rotman, University of Toronto and the Chief Data Scientist at Creative Destruction Lab.

Ben Lorica Chief Data Scientist of O'Reilly Media, and Program Director of OReilly Strata & OReillyAI conferences. Ben hosts the OReilly Data Show Podcast too.

Chris Nicholson Co-founder Deeplearning4j & Skymind. Previous to that, Chris worked at The New York Times.

Doug Fulop Product manager at Kindred.ai.

Dror Berman Founder, Innovation Endeavors.

Dylan Tweney Founder of @TweneyMedia, former EIC @venturebeat, ex-@WIRED, publisher of @tinywords.

Gary Kazantsev R&D Machine Learning at Bloomberg LP.

Gideon Mann Head of Data Science / CTO Office at Bloomberg LP.

Gordon Ritter Cloud investor at Emergence Capital, cloud entrepreneur.

Jack Clark Strategy and Communications Director OpenAI. Past: @business Worlds Only Neural Net Reporter. @theregister Distributed Systems Reporter.

Federico Pascual COO & Co-Founder, MonkeyLearn.

Matt Turck VC at FirstMark Capital and the organizer of Data Driven NYC and Hardwired NYC.

Nick Adams Data Scientist, Berkeley Institute for Data Science.

Roger Magoulas Research Director, OReilly Media.

Sean Gourley Former CEO, Quid.

Shruti Gandhi Array.VC, previously at True & Samsung Ventures.

Steve Jurvetson Partner at Draper Fisher Jurvetson.

Vijay Sundaram Venture Capitalist Innovation Endeavors, Tinkerer Polkadot Labs.

Zavain Dar VC Lux Capital, Lecturer Stanford University, Moneyball Philadelphia 76ers.

Yann Lecun Director of AI Research, Facebook. Founding Director of the NYU Center for Data Science

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Artificial Intelligence – Graduate Schools of Science …

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a field that develops intelligent algorithms and machines. Examples include: self-driving cars, smart cameras, surveillance systems, robotic manufacturing, machine translations, internet searches, and product recommendations. Modern AI often involves self-learning systems that are trained on massive amounts of data ("Big Data"), and/or interacting intelligent agents that perform distributed reasoning and computation. AI connects sensors with algorithms and human-computer interfaces, and extends itself into large networks of devices. AI has found numerous applications in industry, government and society, and is one of the driving forces of today's economy.

The Master's programme in Amsterdam has a technical approach towards AI research. It is a joint programme of the University of Amsterdam and VrijeUniversiteit Amsterdam. This collaboration guarantees a wide range of topics, all taught by world renownedresearchers who are experts in their field.

In this Master's programme we offer a comprehensive collection of courses. It includes:

Next to the general AI programme we offer specialisations in:

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Artificial Intelligence - Graduate Schools of Science ...

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Artificial Intelligence – IndiaBIX

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Why Computer Science Artificial Intelligence?

In this section you can learn and practice Computer Science Questions based on "Artificial Intelligence" and improve your skills in order to face the interview, competitive examination and various entrance test (CAT, GATE, GRE, MAT, Bank Exam, Railway Exam etc.) with full confidence.

IndiaBIX provides you lots of fully solved Computer Science (Artificial Intelligence) questions and answers with Explanation. Solved examples with detailed answer description, explanation are given and it would be easy to understand. All students, freshers can download Computer Science Artificial Intelligence quiz questions with answers as PDF files and eBooks.

Here you can find objective type Computer Science Artificial Intelligence questions and answers for interview and entrance examination. Multiple choice and true or false type questions are also provided.

You can easily solve all kind of Computer Science questions based on Artificial Intelligence by practicing the objective type exercises given below, also get shortcut methods to solve Computer Science Artificial Intelligence problems.

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Artificial Intelligence - IndiaBIX

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Philosophy of Religion Religion and Memetics

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Evolutionary theory has revolutionised modern thought. The way that we understand the world has been profoundly influenced by Darwins insight into the way that natural selection guides progress over time. Recently, it has been recognised that Darwins theory applies not only to biological organisms but also to ideas. Some, such as Richard Dawkins, Susan Blackmore, and Daniel Dennett, have argued that this provides an explanation of religious belief, and that this explanation counts against the idea that such beliefs are true.

Darwins theory of evolution sought to explain the diversity of species in the world in the following way:

The world contains only a limited supply of the resources necessary to support life. Organisms must therefore compete with each other for these resources in order to survive.

As biological organisms reproduce, random genetic mutations occur, introducing variety into the species. Because of these mutations, some members of the species are better able to compete for resources, i.e. fitter, than others.

The result of this natural selection is the survival of the fittest. As the competition is won or lost, weaker members of the species will die out, without reproducing, and their genes will be lost to the gene pool. Stronger members, on the other hand will survive, and their fitter genes will be replicated.

The process will then repeat, with mutations again introducing new genetic variety, and natural selection again choosing the fittest members of the species to survive and reproduce.

There are thus two stages to evolution: mutation, which introduces variety into a species, and natural selection, which chooses between the members of the species, driving progress by ensuring that only the fittest members survive and reproduce.

With each iteration of the process of natural selection, the gene pool becomes stronger; species develop on an upward trajectory. Given enough time, evolution theory holds, this upward trajectory can take a species far; indeed, we ourselves are thought to have evolved from single-celled organisms via this process.

Recently, it has been recognised that this theory can be applied not only to biological organisms, but also to ideas. Ideas, too, replicate themselves, passing from one individual to another, changing over time. Ideas, too, compete for survival in the minds of the people of the time; an idea that is rejected altogether dies out.

Just as the fittest organisms will survive and reproduce, then, so too will the fittest ideas. Ideas that replicate themselves in this way have been called memes, a term coined by Richard Dawkins in The Selfish Gene; the study of this process is called memetics.

What makes for fitness in ideas will be similar to what makes for fitness in genes. The ability to replicate itself is important if either a gene or an idea is to spread; the greater this ability the better. The ability to survive is also vital if the gene or idea is not to be wiped out before it reproduces.

One thing that need not be involved in the fitness of an idea is truth. An idea may replicate itself widely and be extremely robust without corresponding to reality.

Christianity does indeed possess those features that are necessary for an idea to compete for survival effectively.

Christianity is very good at replicating itself; the great commission, Jesus instruction to his followers, is to go and make disciples of all nations. Those who possess the Christian meme, who believe in the God of the Bible, therefore replicate Christianity as far as they are able to do so.

Christianity is also very robust. The all too common emphasis of religion on faith to the exclusion of reason makes those that possess the Christian meme liable to reject evidence against it. Christianity has even been accused by Antony Flew in his paper Theology and Falsification of being unfalsifiable, i.e. of being such that no evidence could possibly count against it. Those that possess the Christian meme are therefore unlikely to lose it.

None of this memetic critique of Christianity, of course, proves that Christianity is false; that is not what it attempts to do. Rather, what the memetic critique of Christianity attempts to do is demonstrate that even if Christianity were false, we would expect belief in it to be widespread. Atheism, the argument goes, can explain Christianity; there is nothing mysterious about the success of religion.

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Philosophy of Religion Religion and Memetics

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Memetics Story

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DRUIDE : Celui qui est trs savant

PREMIRE MISSION :

SECONDE MISSION :

TROISIME MISSION :

LES DRUIDES DANS L'ANCIENNE SOCIT CELTIQUE

Envisags au sens large, c'est--dire en tant qu'ils forment une classe sacerdotale, les druides offrent l'exemple accompli d'un groupe assumant au niveau le plus lev les valeurs, non d'un tat, mais d'un ensemble ethnique tout entier, dont il reprsente la foncire unit en mme temps qu'il contribue puissamment la maintenir, en dpit d'une grande dispersion dans l'espace - des rives de l'Atlantique la Cappadoce. Leur prsence, il est vrai, n'est pas formellement atteste partout dans le monde celtique; mais ceci tient, en partie au moins, l'indigence de notre information. Celle-ci repose sur les notices occasionnelles livres par la littrature grecque ou latine relaye, en Bretagne insulaire et surtout en Irlande, par une littrature mdivale hautement conservatrice, mais christianise. Au demeurant, le nom mme de druides n'est pas connu en dehors du celtique. Mais, de quelque manire que chaque nation celtique ait organis ce corps complexe, l'essentiel est qu'il conserve un statut minemment archaque qui l'apparente, parfois jusqu'au dtail, aux confrries homologues connues dans d'autres rgions conservatrices du monde indo-europen : Rome avec les flamines et les pontifes, dans l'Inde pr-bouddhique avec les brahmanes, ces derniers ayant mme l'poque historique cristallis en une classe ferme - la premire des trois castes fondamentales - la position minente et les liens avec l'aristocratie dirigeante qu'ils dtenaient aux temps vdiques.

Or, ce dernier trait est prcisment l'une des spcificits de l'ordre druidique : s'il agit dans l'intrt de la communaut, c'est de manire implicite; en fait, il apparat troitement li l'aristocratie, dans laquelle il se recrute, mme si l'on ne peut affirmer que, dans l'ensemble, la fonction ait t rigoureusement hrditaire. En tout cas, il apparat comme la face savante et sacralisante de la figure royale. Les activits exerces par les druides (au tmoignage de Csar comme des vieux textes de l'Irlande) pourraient mme servir dfinir de manire exemplaire cette fonction sociale primordiale que G. Dumzil a mise au jour chez les anciens peuples indo-europens et qu'il a appele, aprs l'indianiste A. Bergaigne, du nom heureux de souverainet . Souverainet, c'est--dire tout ce qui, activits ou modes de penser, rgit les formes suprieures d'administration du sacr et, sous la garantie des dieux, de la socit des hommes, avec leurs prolongements thologiques, juridiques et, plus largement, la pit, l'intelligence, la divination ou le savoir. La royaut proprement dite occupe dans ce schma une position part, transcendant les deux autres fonctions (guerre et force physique d'une part, fcondit et productivit de l'autre) tout en exerant le pouvoir au nom de la premire; et l'on voit dans l'Inde le roi provenir dans la pratique de la caste guerrire.

On ne saurait par ailleurs oublier que les conditions documentaires dans lesquelles nous atteignons le paganisme celtique nous interdisent toute investigation en profondeur sur les motivations proprement religieuses du prtre, sur ce qu'on serait tent d'appeler une vocation. En effet, l'historiographie grco-romaine ne s'y intresse pour ainsi dire que de l'extrieur. Csar nous a laiss, on vient de le rappeler, une description infiniment prcieuse de l'institution druidique (De bello Gallico, VI, 13-14); mais c'est une description d'ethnologue, vraisemblablement tire du voyageur-philosophe Posidonios, et d'ailleurs sommaire, du druide duen Diviciacus. Csar ne pouvait retenir, eu gard son objectif, que l'action politique : il n'a pas cherch en quoi le prtre et le politique ont pu interfrer.

Quant aux littratures insulaires mdivales, elles foisonnent en pisodes qui mettent en scne des personnages issus de la tradition druidique : magiciens, conteurs, voire un ancien dieu-druide comme Dagd. Mais les clercs qui l'on doit la recension dfinitive des rcits irlandais ou gallois les ont expurgs en tant la fonction druidique une partie de son aspect religieux, du moins au niveau lev o il pouvait offusquer une conscience chrtienne : c'est--dire prcisment ce qui intresse l'engagement du prtre celtique l'gard de la divinit. Faut-il le dire ? Les littratures celtiques anciennes n'ont livr l'quivalent ni d'un Lamennais ni mme d'un Bernanos. En revanche, la place du druide dans la socit donne matire un riche dossier, dont on ne peut prsenter ici que quelques pices matresses. C'est donc dans un cadre minemment social que la question de l'engagement peut tre envisage, mme si - et ceci n'est nullement contradictoire - les comptences multiples de la classe druidique mlent de manire indissociable, comme en toute socit archaque, sacr et profane.

I - Les origines

Elles ont donn lieu, dans un pass encore rcent, maintes controverses. J. Pokorny voyait dans l'institution druidique l'un des vestiges pr-indo-europens qu'il croyait reconnatre dans les langues et les civilisations celtiques. Plus rcemment, l'historien de l'Antiquit J. Harmand y a vu une institution peu ancienne. En vrit, comme on l'a brivement indiqu plus haut, il y a lieu de distinguer l'institution et la terminologie qui s'y rapporte. Cette dernire peut tre moins archaque, en ce sens que les mots clefs qui dsignent le prtre-savant ou le devin (druid-, bardo, weled-) se retrouvent la fois en Gaule, en Irlande et, pour les deux derniers, en Galles, sans remonter pour autant comme tels la prhistoire indo-europenne. Du moins ces trois termes sont-ils antrieurs la sparation, plus rcente il est vrai qu'on ne le pensait nagure, entre les Gals d'Irlande et le complexe gallo-brittonique (comprenant la majorit des Celtes continentaux et de Grande-Bretagne). Rappelons d'ailleurs en passant qu'il y a lieu de renoncer dfinitivement l'analyse traditionnelle de druid- (ainsi chez Csar, plur. druides, etc., et en proto-galique : cf. v. irl. dru, plur. druidi) par le nom du chne , analyse inspire entre autres par le rite de la cueillette du gui. Le vieux breton dorguid devin qui lui est visiblement apparent de prs, invite en effet y reconnatre un compos de la racine *weid- qui, ds l'indo-europen, se rfrait la vision physique, mais aussi la voyance, et de l au savoir et la sapience. Cette valeur religieuse subsiste, dgrade, dans les mots russe vd'ma sorcire et armnien get sorcier, devin . Lacise, elle a fourni les verbes savoir au germanique (nerl. weten, etc.; mais cf. encore angl. wise sage, avis ). Restreinte son emploi physique, elle nous a donn notre verbe voir (lit. uidere; cf. angl. wit-ness tmoin ). Le sens de druid- est donc trs savant (ou trs voyant) . L'irlandais a, en outre, form sur le mme modle su (*su-wid-) trs sage , qui dsigne parfois le druide dans les textes mdivaux. Mais ce modle mme est indo-europen : dans l'Inde, les composs nominaux en -vd- sont dj rig-vdiques; ds l'poque vdique tardive, l'une des pithtes du brahmane est evam-vid- (litt. qui sait de manire conforme, qui sait le vrai ), et d'ailleurs le sanscrit n'ignore pas le compos su-vid-, faiblement et tardivement attest, il est vrai. Sans doute, le nom du druide n'est pas ranger formellement parmi ces conservatismes en matire de terminologie juridico-religieuse que le monde italique ou celtique partage avec le monde indo-iranien (type lat. rix, celt. rix roi : sanscr. rj-, rj, ou encore lat. flamen : scr. brahmn-). Il reste que la structure du mot et sa signification institutionnelle, identiques depuis l'ouest du Continent jusqu' l'Irlande, attestent son existence ds l'poque proto-celtique et font prsumer la haute antiquit de l'institution elle-mme. C'est ces antiques confrries sacerdotales, qui apparaissent dans leurs milieux respectifs comme des survivances, que J. Vendryes, ds 1914 (dans une communication publie et connue en 1918), attribuait les concordances de terminologie juridico-religieuse conserves par les rgions priphriques du monde indo-europen. Le trait le plus frappant, on l'a indiqu ci-dessus, est le contrle exerc par le druide sur le pouvoir que nous nommerions aujourd'hui excutif, l'origine la royaut. Elle-mme hritage prhistorique, elle survit avec ses formes traditionnelles en Irlande jusqu' son incorporation la couronne d'Angleterre, en Bretagne insulaire jusqu' l'poque romaine; mais, dans la Gaule de Csar, elle avait cd presque partout le pas un rgime de magistratures. Mais mme alors l'action du druide demeure prpondrante : ce sont les druides duens qui lvent Convictolitavis la magistrature suprme (Cs., B. G., VII, 34, 4), selon la coutume nationale (more ciuitatis), la royaut ayant d'ores et dj disparu (intermissis magistratibus). Un rcit pique irlandais montre comment l'incantation druidique intervenait lors de l'lection du roi suprme de l'le (ard-r), et d'une faon gnrale la littrature irlandaise abonde en tmoignages sur l'autorit spirituelle que les druides, en particulier celui qui tait attach la cour, exeraient sur le pouvoir. Si le druide n'avait pas proprement autorit sur le roi, la coutume lui assurait du moins une prrogative (au sens romain du terme) que le rhteur grec Dion Chrysostome, au dbut du IIe sicle de notre re, a bien exprime : sans les druides, il n'tait permis au roi ni d'agir ni de dcider (Disc., 32 = anc. 49). Formule que rpte presque mot pour mot tel rcit du cycle d'Ulster c'tait un des interdits du roi (des Ulates) que de prendre la parole avant ses druides : mme le fier Conchobar s'y soumet docilement. Un vieux trait lexicologique irlandais, la Convenance des noms (Cir anmann), oppose les druides qui sont des dieux aux hommes du commun qui ne le sont pas. Or, ces traits se retrouvent dans l'Inde ancienne, o le brahmane est magnifi ds les temps vdiques, jusqu' tre qualifi de dieu-homme , et o l'on voit les raja s'attacher un chapelain titre personnel, la fois conseiller, garant de la bienveillance divine et exorciseur, et qui, dans le crmonial de la cour, avait la prsance (de l son nom de puro-hita- plac devant ). Et le peu que nous percevons d'authentique dans la Rome des rois (les quatre pr-trusques du rcit traditionnel) donne penser qu'une solidarit de mme ordre unissait le rex et le plus minent des trois flammes majeurs : celui qui desservait le culte de Jupiter, le dieu latin que ses attributions rapprochaient le plus de la souverainet telle que dfinie ci-dessus. Dans son Mitra-Varuna, p. 26 sv., G. Dumzil a dress un tableau saisissant des concordances entre les contraintes rituelles imposes Rome au flamine de Jupiter et en Inde au brahmane. Or, on vient de voir que flamen et brahmn- reposent sur un mme original prhistorique, les objections ritres l'encontre de ce vieux rapprochement (et dont aucune n'est dirimante) se heurtant ici une sorte d'vidence premire; et cette identit la fois rituelle et lexicale forme une sorte de chanon permettant de relier cet ensemble le druidisme celtique, o un *blaxmon- n'a jusqu'ici pas laiss de trace mais aura t remplac par ce qui semble avoir t une qualification laudative, sorte de titre crmoniel : qui a science ou voyance profonde . Ces concidences n'puisent pas la liste. En voici quelques-unes encore, trs diffrentes, dont seul peut rendre compte le soin avec lequel des corporations savantes ou sacerdotales ont su maintenir chacune de son ct, travers deux millnaires d'une protohistoire coup sr mouvemente, une tradition jalousement entretenue. C'est, par exemple, la fidlit au blanc comme symbole de la premire fonction , par opposition notamment au rouge des rois ou des guerriers, qu'il s'agisse du bonnet du flamine romain (l'albo-galerus) ou du vtement de l'officiant indo-iranien (car certaines des concordances s'tendent l'Iran mazden) ou celtique : deux notices de Pline l'Ancien (XVI, 149; XXIV, 103) sont cet gard tout fait premptoires. - D'autre part, le plus vieux droit irlandais (dont la rdaction parvenue jusqu' nous s'chelonne du VIe au VIIIe sicle) et le plus vieux droit indien (Lois dites de Manu, dont la recension est plus ancienne d'environ un demi-millnaire) prsentent entre eux des convergences portant sur des points prcis, et qui ne sauraient tre fortuites : l'incapacit de la femme, formule en termes pratiquement identiques, avec la mme exception pour la fille piclre, substitut du fils en l'absence d'hritiers en ligne masculine; le nombre de gnrations retenues comme constitutives de la grande famille; les divers modes de mariages, etc. Les druides et les brahmanes ont entretenu de mme la croyance en l'efficacit magique de la dclaration ou du rcit vridique. Ainsi, un texte irlandais, peut-tre du VIIIe sicle, fait noncer un juriste lgendaire une srie d'aphorismes destins un prince, lui promettant, s'il pratique la Vrit, un rgne heureux et puissant, l'loignement de la mort pour ses populations, un juste quilibre des saisons, etc. Il n'est pas rare que des textes narratifs assurent ceux qui les coutent protection, succs en justice, en voyage ou la chasse : en quoi l'Irlande rejoint exactement la doctrine indienne du ravanaphala- ( fruit de l'audition [vridique ou sacre] ), plusieurs fois raffirme dans le Mahabharata par exemple. On sait par ailleurs que la Vrit est dans les conceptions indo-iraniennes une composante de l'ordre cosmique; elle fait l'objet d'un respect religieux qui s'affirme par exemple sur les inscriptions monumentales des rois de Perse achmnides. Identique en Inde et dans le monde celtique a t aussi l'attitude des corps savants devant l'criture. Cette dernire, on le sait, tait pourtant connue dans la Gaule hellnise, surtout Marseille, ds le VIe sicle avant notre re; des inscriptions en langue gauloise montrent que l'alphabet grec avait lentement pntr le long de la valle du Rhne et mme au-del de la Loire. Et, si obscure que soit l'origine des critures indiennes, il parat vraisemblable que les relations avec l'Empire perse, matre de la rgion de l'Indus, avaient apport l'usage, des fins administratives ou mercantiles, de la langue et de l'criture aramennes, bien que tout tmoignage direct fasse ici dfaut. Quoi qu'il en soit, mme les grammairiens sanscrits (sans parler par exemple de l'pope) ne font aucune allusion l'criture. Et il est curieux de constater que l'pigraphie indigne apparat au IIIe sicle en Inde comme - de manire trs limite - en Gaule du Midi. Quant l'emploi de l'ogam maintes fois voqu dans la littrature irlandaise, il ne s'agit pas encore du systme alphabtique qui se constituera sous ce nom dans l'Irlande chrtienne et latinise du IVe sicle, mais de signes magiques, sortes de sortilges gravs, dont seuls, d'ailleurs, les druides ou les filid avaient la matrise. On est donc en prsence d'un attachement bilatral, et dlibr, au principe de l'oralit, avec cette circonstance rvlatrice qu'en ce qui concerne la Gaule, la responsabilit des druides est explicitement affirme par le tmoignage de Csar (B. G., VI, 14). En Inde, o Vak ( Parole ) tait divinise, on estime que la transmission exclusivement orale des parties versifies du Veda (hymnaires, formules liturgiques, etc.) s'est poursuivie jusqu'au milieu du Moyen ge; nagure encore la mmorisation de textes trs tendus tenait une grande place dans l'apprentissage des futurs pandits. On a pu parler ce propos, comme d'une constante de l'rudition indienne, d'un long ddain pour la chose crite. Mais ici nous touchons un aspect trop essentiel du druidisme - l'enseignement, la valeur sacre de la parole, la part de la mmoire et de l'improvisation dans la composition potique ou savante -, pour ne pas lui rserver un dveloppement part, qu'on trouvera plus loin.

II - Organisation hirarchique, enseignement, recrutement

Par organisation hirarchique , il ne faudrait pas entendre une structure cohrente, sorte d'glise constitue soumise une autorit centrale analogue celle qu'exerait Rome le pontifex maximus. Le monde celtique ancien ne comptait pas, on le sait, d'tats centraliss. Cependant, d'une part, la classe des druides possdait au moins l'embryon d'une organisation supra-nationale : il suffit d'voquer la runion que les druides des diverses cits de Gaule tenaient tous les ans. D'autre part, ces mmes druides gaulois lisaient une sorte de prsident, investi, dit Csar (VI, 13, 8), de la plus grande autorit morale (summam auctoritatem). En outre, la classe comptait diverses fonctions spcialises, mieux connues pour l'Irlande que pour la Celtique continentale mis part trois d'entre elles : l'invocateur, le devin et le barde :

1 - c'est par invocateur qu'il convient d'interprter le mot transcrit gutuater sur quelques ddicaces latines de Gaule, l'lment gutu- tant rapprocher de l'irl. guth voix , ce qui placerait le gutuater dans la classe druidique un niveau comparable celui du hotar brhmanique (sans parent tymologique entre les deux noms); on notera que le titre, conserv exceptionnellement l'poque romaine, dsigne un prtre attach un culte particulier (en l'espce celui d'Anvallos, dieu rgional d'Autun, et de Mars, lequel recouvre coup sr un dieu tutlaire de cit ); or, ce service d'un culte personnel n'est jamais dit d'un druide et c'est ce caractre troitement cultuel qui l'avait sans doute fait tolrer par le pouvoir romain;

2 - le devin (en Gaule uatis, en Irlande faith), porte un vieux nom indo-europen occidental conserv en latin, et dont la racine renvoie la notion de possession ou de transe mystique , puis d 'inspiration divinatoire ou potique , valeurs encore trs sensibles en germanique : le nom d'Odhinn (Wotan) en drive, ainsi que les mots all. Wut fureur ou v. anglais wods chant ; ce dernier sens est aussi, avec la nuance particulire de chant de louange , celui du moy. gallois gwawd; la tradition galique a cependant privilgi un nom du voyant (fiIe, au pluriel filid, du celt. anc. *wel- voir ), qui dsigne le plus gnralement dans les textes les divers reprsentants du corps savant ou magicien; peut-tre par suite de l'effacement du druide prtre, il occupe un rang lev dans la hirarchie sociale; la prophtesse Velleda de la petite tribu germanique rhnane des Bructres indique que le prestige de ce nom, et sans doute de la fonction, ont rayonn la priphrie du monde celtophone; l'Irlande connat aussi la devineresse (ban-file);

3 - plus connu, le barde (anc. bardos, irl. brd, gall. bardd, etc.) tait proprement le louangeur , le chantre charg de composer l'loge versifi des chefs ou un chant de guerre devant les troupes (cf. sanscr. gir- chant de louange ); attest dans toute l'tendue du monde celtique, il reprsentait un degr modeste dans la classe druidique, et sans doute est-ce pour cette raison qu'il lui a survcu pour ainsi dire jusqu' nos jours : qui dit barde ne pense-t-il pas d'abord ces mnestrels bretons (barzhed) qui, au XIXe sicle encore, s'en allaient de foires en chteaux drouler les couplets de leur composition ou de leur rpertoire ? Chose trange, le mystrieux pouvoir qu'ils tenaient d'une antique tradition n'avait pas tout fait disparu, et il arrivait qu'on les consulte dans les affaires graves de la famille : aussi bien, tous les potes ou chanteurs populaires ne dtenaient pas le titre de barde. Comme on lisait en Gaule un druide suprme (au terme d'une comptition qui n'tait pas toujours platonique), de mme l'Irlande proclamait, au terme d'une disputatio verbale, un docteur (ollam, littralement suprme, minent ), qui revtait une robe spciale : tmoin, par exemple, le Colloque des deux sages , dont le vainqueur tait l'un des plus illustres potes mythiques de l'le, Ferchterne. Ici encore, rencontre entre traditions gauloise et galique. Le recrutement des druides de l'Antiquit tait, cela va sans dire, aristocratique - entendons qu'il concernait les deux premires classes, traduction dans la pratique sociale des deux fonctions dumziliennes de souverainet et de force guerrire. Toutefois, il importe de noter, pour notre propos, que nous n'en connaissons pas les rgles prcises, dont il n'est pas sr qu'elles n'aient pas vari avec le temps, les peuples, les circonstances. Nous les dduisons d'aprs les textes, spcialement irlandais, qui sont de nature plus pique ou mythologique que religieuse.

On sait du moins par un passage clbre de Csar (VI, 14) que les apprentis druides passaient par un noviciat de vingt annes, dure que la tradition irlandaise rduit douze ans. D'autre part, le mme texte nous apprend que les druides taient les ducateurs de la jeunesse. Ds lors se pose une question. Entre leurs lves, nombreux (magnus adulescentium numerus), et les candidats retenus la prtrise, o se situait la limite, comment s'oprait la slection, et quelle tait la part de la slection et celle de la vocation ? Cl. Sterckx, que la question a rcemment retenu, suggre que si l'accs l'enseignement n'tait pas rserv la caste druidique, il peut ne s'tre agi que d'une partie du savoir profane ou, au plus, de formes auxiliaires de sacerdoce ne requrant qu'un cursus moins long, tandis qu'on a pu rserver aux fils de druides les formes suprieures de la science thologique, les arcanes. De fait, ajoute Cl. Sterckx, des textes les plus anciens... aux derniers sicles des populations claniques d'Irlande et d'cosse, l'hrdit des fonctions (druides, potes, musiciens, mdecins...) est gnrale . Il semble bien en effet ressortir de deux passages du pote bordelais Ausone (Prof. Burdigal., IV, 7 et X, 22 Peiper) que des sacerdoces exercs autrefois en Gaule taient hrditaires. Le fait que les deux personnages voqus soient devenus au temps d'Ausone des rhteurs et des professeurs tmoigne mme d'une volution caractristique : le savoir s'est lacis en mme temps qu'il s'est latinis, mais il est rest une constante dans les deux familles. D'autre part, une version du clbre rcit pique irlandais le Rapt des vaches de Cooley (Tin b Cualnge) voque le grand druide Cathbad et sa classe de cent cinquante enfants nobles, dont huit seulement, dit le texte, taient capables de science druidique ; et une autre version parle, propos de la mme classe, de cent tourdis , nous apprenant ainsi que les lves n'taient pas tous arms de fortes motivations, et en mme temps que les chiffres de 100 ou 150 taient conventionnels, donc exagrs. D'autre part, il n'y avait pas de cloisons tanches entre la classe druidique et la noblesse guerrire; tel fils de noble pouvait devenir druide, et inversement : le roi d'Ulster Conchobar tait le fils du druide Cathbad. En Celtique continentale, le druide Diviciacus commande une arme duenne (Cs., II, 10, 5); en revanche, il ne ressort pas clairement du tmoignage de Cicron (De diu., II, 37) que le chef galate Djotarus, contemporain de Csar, ait lui-mme accompli l'acte technique d'une prise d'auspices : il a pu tre accompagn d'un augure professionnel comme et fait un gnral romain. Que conclure de tout ceci ? Assurment - la longueur mme des tudes l'imposait -, le recrutement des lves tait rserv l'aristocratie et, du moins pour les premiers degrs, non ncessairement la seule classe druidique. Or, on va voir que celle-ci comportait une srie de grades, de fonctions d'ingale dignit. Il est donc prsumer que des tudes plus courtes, limites au savoir laque (au sens tout relatif de ce terme), conduisaient certains grades, tandis que les plus levs, o entrait une part indterminable de vocation personnelle, de slection intellectuelle et de tradition familiale, auront t rservs une lite. Ceci, sans compter des avantages apprciables : exemption d'impts et de service militaire (Csar, VI, 14, 1).

Avec le temps, l'appartenance familiale, qui d'ailleurs devait avantager intellectuellement les candidats, a pu devenir prpondrante, jouer ds l'enfance et envahir mme les fonctions subalternes. Quoi qu'il en soit, tous les historiens ont soulign l'originalit, dans les socits occidentales antiques, d'un systme ducatif subordonnant de manire aussi troite un clerg la formation des lites; et l'on a mme pu voquer ce propos le rle des jsuites dans nos socits l'poque moderne. Il est vrai que le monde grco-romain n'offre rien de pareil; et sans doute le dveloppement inhabituel qu'y consacre Csar trahit-il, de la part de ce sceptique en matire religieuse, un certain tonnement. Ici encore s'impose la comparaison avec l'Inde ancienne o, aprs l'enseignement lmentaire des lettres et du calcul, le trs jeune adolescent entrait dans le brahmacarya, nom qui indique clairement qu'il s'agissait d'une sorte de noviciat : le savoir laque y tait abord dans ses rapports avec le Veda au sens large. En vrit, il s'agit l'vidence, dans la Celtique comme en Inde, d'une conception archaque de la socit o le savoir n'est pas dgag encore de la spculation et de l'exprience magico-religieuse. La socit trusque, o les devins (rapprochs des druides par Cicron dj, De div., I, 41) enseignaient la jeunesse noble et attiraient encore l'poque romaine les fils de patriciens, prsente un stade analogue, avec, toutefois, une emprise sociale sensiblement moindre. On en dira autant de l'ancienne cole pythagoricienne de Grande-Grce, o la spculation sur les nombres et sur les astres voisinait avec l'exprience mystique, et o les anciens avaient d'ailleurs relev les croyances communes avec les druides touchant l'immortalit de l'me. Comment pouvait se prsenter cet enseignement ? Sous le signe de l'oralit, cela va de soi; mais l'oralit ne va pas sans une mnmotechnie labore. Comme nous avons tout lieu de croire que la littrature rudite de l'Irlande mdivale a prserv une partie de cet enseignement - en principe la partie profane mais, par bonheur, la discrimination n'a pas t trop svre -, nous pouvons nous faire une ide, non seulement du contenu de la matire, mais de la manire mme dont elle tait expose. Ainsi, le Glossaire de Cormac, compil vers 900, et source majeure pour notre connaissance de la vieille tradition galique, se prsente sous la forme de sentences concises composes, ciseles plutt, dans une langue savante, prcieuse, mtaphorique, riche en archasmes, dont les filid s'enorgueillissaient de matriser toutes les subtilits; c'est cette mme recherche artiste qui prside la posie lyrique galloise des dbuts du Moyen ge : la monotonie des thmes y est rachete par l'extrme recherche de l'expression. Nul doute qu'il se soit agi, l encore, d'un phnomne de tradition, li l'oralit : formules religieuses, aphorismes de droit, strophes laudatives destines aux rois ou aux hros, tout cela devait, pour tre mmoris, mais aussi pour plaire l'lite, chapper la banalit de la langue commune. Et, l'cole druidique, il fallait l'exgse du matre, et le dialogue qui s'engageait entre matre et disciples, non seulement pour comprendre, mais encore pour actualiser, faire vivre en quelque sorte ces condenss traditionnels et immuables. De ces dialogues, les morceaux savants, souvent de caractre tiologique, qui maillent les sagas irlandaises donnent une ide. Un personnage interrompt le rcit en entendant un nom qui retient sa curiosit : d'o vient tel nom ? et un savant file, jamais court, de rpondre : ce n'est pas difficile... . Suit un topos qui nous fait connatre une lgende appuyant une tymologie. Le procd est constant. Or, cette manire de faire alterner morceaux sotriques, versifis lorsqu'ils ont un caractre lyrique, et le rcit ou le commentaire rdig dans une prose plus fluide, moins archaque au moment de sa fixation par crit, on la retrouve dans d'autres littratures du monde indo-europen ancien. Parfois mme les sutures en prose n'ont pas survcu au moment de la mise par crit. A. Meillet a ainsi propos, de manire sduisante, d'expliquer l'obscurit et le dcousu des stances zoroastriennes de l'Avesta, les gth. La littrature vdique ou bouddhique mme offre des faits du mme ordre. Il reste un souvenir de ce procd dans le thtre grec, o alternent les parties chantes par le coeur, de versification complique, composes dans le dorien conventionnel et savant du genre lyrique, et les parties dialogues, qui seules font progresser l'intrigue, et utilisent en principe le parler courant d'Athnes, dans un mtre souple, proche du rythme naturel de la langue. Or, la plus ancienne posie lyrique irlandaise ou galloise, dont certaines pices peuvent avoir t composes ds le trs haut Moyen ge, se trouve, mutatis mutandis, dans une situation comparable celle des gths de l'Avesta : les dveloppements originaux en prose qui les encadraient et leur assuraient une cohrence ont pratiquement disparu. Plus tard seulement les sagas irlandaises ont enchss de tels morceaux lyriques, dont la forme recherche contraste avec l'absence d'art de la prose qui droule la trame du rcit.

la lumire de ce qui prcde, on comprend mieux le refus de l'criture. Hritage de la prhistoire, sans doute, maintenu par le conservatisme inhrent toute religion. Mais cette attitude a pris un autre sens lorsque les circonstances historiques eurent introduit la connaissance de l'criture dans les pays celtiques. Aux deux raisons un peu courtes allgues par Csar : souci d'sotrisme corporatif et danger d'affaiblissement de la mmoire chez les lves, Dumzil, mis en veil par un texte de Plutarque (Numa, 22, 2), en a substitu une troisime, plus profonde et d'o dcoulent les deux autres : sans la parole vivifiante du matre, ce savoir tait vou la sclrose, il devenait seulement formulaire, et donc, comme dit Plutarque, apsukhon. C'tait, en somme, le moyen de concilier tradition et actualit. Cl. Sterckx fait remarquer ce propos que les inscriptions celtiques ou mme gallo-romaines s'en tiennent des messages immuables (pitaphes, ex-voto, excrations... ) jusqu' l'poque chrtienne. Il est vrai que la Gaule conquise par Csar, qui ne manquait pas d'coles, n'a donn aucun crivain latin avant le Bas-Empire : inconscient ou non, serait-ce l un effet du vieil interdit druidique ?

III - Savoirs et pouvoirs

On l'a vu, l'un des traits par o le statut des druides rejoint celui des brahmanes de l'Inde est leur proximit vis--vis du pouvoir : pouvoir royal l'origine, en tant qu'il continuait la vieille royaut sacerdotale indo-europenne, rgime de magistratures qui prvalait en Gaule continentale au temps de Csar. Il est mme significatif qu' la diffrence de ce qui s'est pass chez les trusques et Rome aprs l'viction des rois, o le lucumon et le rex sacrorum ne conservent plus que des fonctions sacerdotales, les druides de Gaule disparaissent compltement de la scne ds le lendemain de la conqute. L'autorit romaine ne pouvait tolrer pareille emprise sur les rouages de la socit ; mais elle a laiss subsister, du moins l'chelon municipal, une fonction politique avec le vergobret, dont le pouvoir, d'ailleurs trs coercitif - le mot peut s'interprter qui a le jugement efficace ou excutoire -, tait auparavant sanctionn par les druides (per sacerdotes more ciuitatis, dit Csar, VII, 33, 4). Magistrat suprme chez des peuples aussi loigns l'un de l'autre que les duens ou les Lexovii (Lisieux), il se retrouve l'poque romaine, Saintes, conservant son titre mais en mme temps prpos au culte imprial et questeur urbain. La puissance spirituelle des druides au service du pouvoir temporel, qui en tait l'manation, les dsignait comme ambassadeurs et mme comme intercesseurs au service de la paix. L'crivain grec Appien voque Bituit, roi des Allobroges vers 220 av. J.-C., venant en somptueux quipage au-devant du gnral romain Domitius Ahenobarbus, suivi d'un pote chantant la louange la fois du roi et de son ambassadeur (Hist. rom., IV, 22). De son ct, Diodore de Sicile nous montre les druides exerant une grande influence sur les questions de paix et de guerre , et en particulier s'entremettant entre deux armes adverses, prtes s'affronter, pour arrter le combat (V, 31). Mais ce pouvoir mme, c'est avec les moyens du pote-magicien qu'il s'exerce, comme le montre par exemple ce passage d'un rcit irlandais, dont j'emprunte la traduction Fr. et Chr. Le Roux-Guyonvarc'h (Druides, p. 107) : Alors se leva le pote prophtique la parole tranchante, l'homme au grand art potique... et les hommes d'art des Fianna [nom du clan]... et ils se mirent chanter leurs lais... et leurs hymnes de louange tous ces hros [opposs dans un combat] pour les calmer et les adoucir. Ils cessrent de se broyer et de se hacher devant la musique des potes... Les potes ramassrent les armes et ils firent la rconciliation entre eux . On ne saurait mieux caractriser la fois la puissance magique prte la posie et aussi le soin que met le rdacteur chrtien viter de parler de druides. Dans un autre rcit, on voit le druide Sencha arrter deux reprises une querelle qui s'lve entre les guerriers ulates. On sait quelle activit diplomatique a dploye l'duen Diviciacus. Lorsque la nation duenne s'est trouve expose au danger germanique, il n'a pas hsit se rendre Rome, l'anne du consulat de Cicron, pour y chercher du secours, puis, en 58, appeler l'intervention de Csar, et enfin, au cours de la premire campagne de Belgique, intercder en faveur des Bellovaques, anciens allis des duens. Pourtant, Diviciacus n'tait pas qu'un ngociateur habile : il tait, nous apprend Cicron, trs vers dans les sciences de la nature et dans l'art divinatoire (De diu., I, 41, 90). Leur proximit avec le pouvoir politique faisait des druides des juges et des jurisconsultes. Ceci n'avait pas chapp Csar, membre d'une nation minemment juriste et procdurire. Le proconsul s'arrte mme cet aspect de l'activit des druides bien plus qu' leurs charges sacerdotales, distinguant mme droit civil et droit public, prcisant, entre autres dtails, que les crimes, les litiges successoraux ou fonciers donnaient lieu compensation pcuniaire ou, comme en droit irlandais, des prix d'honneur (praemia, VI, 13, 5), mais aussi que la cit ou le particulier qui s'y droberait tait puni d'une interdiction de sacrifice, poena grauissima (id., 6) : la sanction suprme tait donc d'ordre religieux. Et sans doute, les controuersiae et les iudicia dont parle Csar (VI, 13, 10) propos de l'assemble annuelle des druides visent des sentences d'arbitrage et des procs pour lesquels l'assemble sigeait en degr d'appel, ou qui concernaient deux nations ou deux fdrations en conflit. L'un des monuments les plus authentiques sans doute de la science druidique est le vieux droit irlandais, dont les articles sont composs en vers heptasyllabiques termins par une unit rythmique fixe (dactyle) pour les besoins de la mmorisation, ce qui souligne ses origines orales.

Le celtique commun avait un radical bret- pour prononcer un jugement, exercer la justice : au uergo-bretos gaulois rpond le brithem juge galique (cf. aussi breth jugement , gallois bryd avis, pense ). La langue des traits de droit irlandais est, comme celle de certains fragments lyriques, la forme la plus archaque du galique que nous puissions atteindre aprs les inscriptions en ogam; et, quant au fond, on a vu quelles analogies il prsente avec le Manavadharmaastra ( Lois de Manu ). Un autre tmoin de la science druidique est le grand calendrier pigraphique, rdig en gaulois, retrouv Coligny (Ain), et o s'affirme encore l'arrire-plan la vieille conception lunaire de la division du temps, donc de l'anne, corrige par les donnes solaires. La concidence entre le mois de Samonios et la fte irlandaise de Samain, comme la rencontre de la date de la fte de Rome et d'Auguste Lyon (ancienne fte du dieu Lugus) et de celle de Lugnasad en Irlande, ou encore de l'assemble druidique et du Beltaine irlandais, tout cela montre que les druides, ici encore, taient comme les pontifes romains les gardiens d'une trs antique tradition. On a vu plus haut quelle force la culture celtique attribuait la posie. On ne s'en tonnera pas. Il en allait de mme dans la Rome primitive : le double sens de carmen, littralement chant (*can-men), et qui dsigne la fois le charme , la formule magique et le pome , suffit le rappeler. Et cette croyance a persist longtemps en pays celtique : un proverbe breton ne dit-il pas que la posie est plus forte que les trois choses les plus fortes : le mal, le feu et la tempte ? On croirait lire un aphorisme tir d'un recueil druidique. L'une des prrogatives les plus constamment prtes aux druides, en effet, est la matrise des lments naturels : c'est Ferchterne, dj rencontr, qui fait baisser les eaux du lac et des rivires quand il satirise, et les fait gonfler quand il loue; c'est Forgoll, qui ose menacer son roi d'une satire qui rendra striles les arbres et les champs du royaume; c'est, dans le pome gallois le Combat des arbrisseaux , le sortilge d'o est sorti le motif shakespearien de la fort marchante . Sans doute, nous quittons ici le domaine de la vie sociale pour entrer dans celui des croyances et de la lgende : mais une croyance collective n'est-elle pas en soi un fait social ? Il en va de mme du blme. Car s'il compose des chants de louange, le druide est aussi un satiriste auquel on prtait une redoutable efficacit : ceci n'tant, au reste, qu'un autre aspect de la force contraignante de la Parole, comme l'ont bien vu Fr. et Chr. Le Roux-Guyonvarc'h : la parole ou la prdiction du druide a dtermin, court ou long terme, les conditions de sa ralit (Druides, p. 199). Que d'ulcres, souvent mortels, causs par une maldiction ou un blme, voire par le faux jugement d'un file ! Nagure encore, on composait en Bretagne des pomes satiriques pour venger un dommage ou une offense... Si le druide gaulois, le file irlandais ou le barde gallois est ainsi conteur, satiriste, matre en posie et en grammaire, il est aussi, ncessairement, gnalogiste et mythographe : c'tait en ce temps la forme du savoir historique. On l'a vu au dbut de cet essai, il n'est pas douteux qu'on doive attribuer la classe sacerdotale le mrite d'avoir gard en mmoire ce trsor de traditions et de lgendes qui fait la richesse unique des littratures celtiques mdivales, avant que les clercs chrtiens ne les mettent par crit, les sauvant de l'oubli o risquait de les emporter l'effacement du paganisme : bndiction sur quiconque gardera fidlement la Razzia [des vaches de Cooley] en mmoire , dit l'un d'eux, qui croit devoir ajouter toutefois qu'il ne croit pas cette fable (fabula), tissu de fictions potiques ou d' artifices de dmons (praestigia demonum). D'une faon gnrale, la socit celtique semble avoir eu la hantise de l'oubli; Rome, la memoria avait t elle aussi, ds l'veil d'une conscience historique, une proccupation majeure des familles patriciennes. En Irlande, indpendamment des scla ou rcits proprement dits, des recueils comme le Cir anmann dj cit, ou les Dindsenchas (litt. histoires des villes ) sont mettre au compte des druides historiens , les sencha ( antiquaires ), un nom port par ailleurs par plus d'un personnage des rcits. Pour l'Antiquit, Camille Jullian avait autrefois runi, dans un essai qui n'a pas t remplac, les thmes littraires de tout genre que les crivains grecs ou latins sont susceptibles d'avoir emprunts la tradition celtique. Mais les druides sont aussi de savants naturalistes, astronomes ou herboristes et, par suite, des mdecins. Les crivains grecs parlent leur sujet de phusiologoi; Csar nous les montre occups des mouvements des astres et de cosmographie (VI, 14, 6). Mais l encore ils agissent autant par leur pouvoir surnaturel que par leur savoir. Lorsque le druide-mdecin du roi d'Ulster Conchobar, Fingen, nonce : c'est la force de la sagesse mdicale, la gurison des blessures, l'loignement de la mort , nous avons un cho de l'ancienne conception tripartie de l'art mdical chez les Indo-Europens, qui s'exprime aussi dans l'Avesta et chez Pindare. Aussi une opration, mme habile, pouvait avoir des effets inattendus. Tmoin la msaventure d'un gardien de Tara, l'antique capitale de l'Irlande: l'oeil de chat qu'on lui avait greff s'ouvrait la nuit aux cris d'une souris ou d'un oiseau, mais laissait endormi le malheureux portier lorsque arrivait une troupe. Diancecht, le dieu-gurisseur des grands dieux, devenus hros d'Irlande (les tuatha d Danann), se fait fort de gurir tout bless, si grave que soit sa plaie, moins qu'on ne lui ait coup la tte. Or, les savants dcoupages anatomiques dont tmoignent les ossuaires sacrs dcouverts Gournay-sur-Aronde (Oise) font sinistrement cho cette apparente forfanterie. Quant au thme des ttes coupes, il trouve, on le sait, son expression plastique dans les sculptures celto-ligures de Provence, Entremont prs d'Aix ou Roquepertuse, pour ne rappeler que ces deux sites bien connus. Comme l'observent Fr. Le Roux et Chr. Guyonvarc'h, la dcapitation, en interdisant toute gurison terrestre, assurait le transfert au vainqueur de toutes les capacits relles ou virtuelles du vaincu (Druides, p. 201). La pharmacope tait riche. La nomenclature botanique transmise par le naturaliste Dioscoride, les recettes mdicales transcrites en gaulois par Marcellus de Bordeaux sont peut-tre l'cho, via quelque trait gallo-romain, de l'enseignement druidique. Ici aussi, on rencontre un savoir pan-celtique : le nom gaulois du gui , parasite du chne dont on sait avec quel crmonial les druides faisaient la cueillette, signifie au tmoignage de Pline ]'Ancien panace (XVI, 249) : or, c'est aussi ce que signifient les composs irlandais et gallois pour dsigner la mme plante.

Conclusion

Il n'tait pour ainsi dire pas de secteur de la vie sociale des anciens Celtes, pas un pan de leur vie intellectuelle qui ne ft plac sous le contrle troit de la classe sacerdotale. Les Celtes offrent ainsi l'exemple d'une organisation archaque dont le monde grec et romain n'a plus, ds l'aube de son histoire, que des survivances isoles. Puissante gardienne de l'unit celtique dans ses formes suprieures, la classe druidique apparat comme un miroir o la socit tout entire se projette en se sublimant. Mais en mme temps cette socit s'en remet entirement, et collectivement elle pour ce qui touche ses rapports avec le divin. Et, si l'aspect individuel du sacerdoce druidique parat pour une trs large part s'effacer devant sa dimension sociale, l'archologie ne montre non plus aucune trace d'une dvotion, d'une pit individuelle. J.-L. Brunaux, prsentant devant l'Acadmie des inscriptions (CRAI, 1997 les rsultats des fouilles rcentes des grands sanctuaires de Picardie, observe qu'il s'agit d'normes sacrifices d'animaux et de trophes guerriers, non d'offrandes individuelles : ni cramiques, ni bijoux; ce sont des trsors sacrs grs par des prtres. Et peut-tre cela rend-il compte, au moins en partie, du caractre exclusivement monastique du premier christianisme irlandais, dont il parat indniable qu'il ait relay sans rupture brutale la tradition druidique. Ceci, toutefois, est un autre sujet.

Suggestions bibliographiques

Tous les aspects du druidisme, vie sociale et doctrine, tmoignages historiques et lgendaires, sont abords dans l'ouvrage dsormais classique auquel on s'est rfr ici plus d'une fois : Fr. Le Roux et Chr.-J. Guyonvarc'h, Les Druides, 4e dition, Ouest-France Universit, Rennes, 1986. Pour une approche plus rapide, on peut voir par exemple : M. Dillon, N. Chadwick et Chr.-J. Guyonvarc'h, Les Royaumes celtiques, trad. et adapt. fran., Fayard, Paris, 1974. J. Loicq, art. Druides et druidisme dans P. Poupard (d.), Dictionnaire des religions, 3e d., P.U.F., Paris, 1992. - Cet article est conu dans le mme esprit que l'essai qu'on vient de lire, mais prend en compte les aspects proprement cultuels et doctrinaux du druidisme, abords ici d'une manire incidente. Cl. Sterckx et P. Cattelain, Des dieux celtes aux dieux romains, d. du CEDARC, B-5670 Treignes, 1997. - Sommaire, mais suggestif, et intgre les rsultats des fouilles des sanctuaires de Gournay-sur-Aronde et Ribemont-sur-Ancre. J'ai connu trop tard l'article brillant, en partie orient vers ces mmes sanctuaires, de J.-L. Brunaux, Le pouvoir des druides, entre mythes et ralits, dans Pour la Science, dossier n. 7625 (octobre 1999). L'dition classique du De bello Gallico de Csar par Benoist, Dosson et Lejay, munie d'un abondant dictionnaire historique auquel avait collabor le celtisant . Ernault (Hachette, Paris, rimpr. jusqu'en 1928), demeure un instrument de travail irremplac en langue franaise. Sur les origines indo-europennes de la classe sacerdotale, le livre-programme de G. Dumzil, Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus, 3e d., Paris, 1941, demeure suggestif malgr sa date et les amnagements ultrieurs qu'on a pu apporter la doctrine. On verra aussi, de M. Dillon, Celt and Hindu dans le Vishveshvaranand Indological Journal, I et part, Vishveshv. Vedic Research Inst., Hoshiarpur (Inde), 1963, et (plus bref) Les Roy. celt., p. 11 sv. L'essai de C. Jullian, De la littrature potique des Gaulois, a paru dans la Revue archologique, 1902, 1. - Conjectural, mais intressant. Sur les procds de composition de la lyrique irlandaise et galloise, ou verra : J. Vendryes, Sur un caractre traditionnel de la posie celtique, 1930, reproduit dans Choix d'tudes linguistiques et celtiques, Klincksieck, Paris, 1952.

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Contract Labour Act, 1970 – Vakilno1.com

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PREAMBLE

[37 OF 1970]

An Act to regulate the employment of contract labour in certain establishments and to provide for its abolition in certain circumstances and for matters connected therewith.

Be it enacted by Parliament in the Twenty-first Year of the Republic of India as follows :-

(1) This Act may be called the Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1970.

(2) It extends to the whole of India.

(3) It shall come into force on such date1 as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act.

(4) It applies (a) to every establishment in which twenty or more workmen are employed or were employed on any day of the preceding twelve months as contract labour;

(b) to every contractor who employs or who employed on any day of the preceding twelve months twenty or more workmen : Provided that the appropriate Government may, after giving not less than two months notice of its intention so to do, by notification in the Official Gazette, apply the provisions of this Act to any establishment or contractor employing such number of workmen less than twenty as may be specified in the notification.

(5)(a) It shall not apply to establishments in which work only of an intermittent or casual nature is performed.

(b) If a question arises whether work performed in an establishment is of an intermittent or casual nature, the appropriate Government shall decide the question after consultation with the Central Board or, as the case may be, a State Board, and its decision shall be final.

Explanation : For the purpose of this sub-section, work performed in an establishment shall not be deemed to be of an intermittent nature- (i) if it was performed for more than one hundred and twenty days in the preceding twelve months, or

(ii) if it is of a seasonal character and is performed for more than sixty days in a year.

STATE AMENDMENT

Maharashtra. In section 1, in sub-section (5), after clause (b), add the following clause, namely:

(c) Notwithstanding anything contained in clause (b) or any other provisions of this Act, the work performed or carried out in the area of Special Economic Zone (declared as such by the Government of India), which is of ancillary nature such as canteen, gardening, cleaning, security, courier services, transport of raw material and finished products, or loading and unloading of goods within the premises of a factory or establishments which are declared 100 per cent. export units by Government, required to achieve the objective of a principal establishment in the said area, shall be deemed to be of temporary and intermittent nature irrespective of the period of performance of the work by the workers in such ancillary establishments.

[Vide The Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) (Maharashtra Amendment) Act, 2005 (Maharashtra Act 13 of 2006), sec. 2 (w.e.f. 2-5-2006).]

COMMENTS

The Act is a piece of social legislation for the welfare of labourers whose conditions of service are not at all satisfactory and it should, therefore, be literally construed; Lionel Edward Ltd. v. Labour Enforcement Officer, 1977 Lab IC 1037 (Cal).

1. Came into force on 10-2-1971, vide G.S.R. 190, dated 1st February, 1971, published in the Gazette of India, Extra., Pt. II, Sec. 3(i), dated 10th February, 1971.

(1) In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,

1(a) appropriate Government means, (i) in relation to an establishment in respect of which the appropriate Government under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 (14 of 1947), is the Central Government, the Central Government; (ii) in relation to any other establishment, the Government of the State in which that other establishment is situated;

(b) a workman shall be deemed to be employed as contract labour in or in connection with the work of an establishment when he is hired in or in connection with such work by or through a contractor, with or without the knowledge of the principal employer;

(c) contractor, in relation to an establishment, means a person who undertakes to produce a given result for the establishment, other than a mere supply of goods or articles of manufacture to such establishment, through contract labour or who supplies contract labour for any work of the establishment and includes a sub-contractor;

(d) controlled industry means any industry the control of which by the Union has been declared by any Central Act to be expedient in the public interest;

(e) establishment means (i) any office or department of the Government or a local authority, or

(ii) any place where any industry, trade, business, manufacture or occupation is carried on;

(f) prescribed means prescribed by rules made under this Act;

(g) principal employer means (i) in relation to any office or department of the Government or a local authority, the head of that office or department or such other officer as the Government or the local authority, as the case may be, may specify in this behalf,

(ii) in a factory, the owner or occupier of the factory and where a person has been named as the manager of the factory under the Factories Act, 1948 (63 of 1948), the person so named,

(iii) in a mine, the owner or agent of the mine and where a person has been named as the manager of the mine, the person so named,

(iv) in any other establishment, any person responsible for the supervision and control of the establishment.

Explanation : For the purpose of sub-clause (iii) of this clause, the expressions mine, owner and agent shall have the meanings respectively assigned to them in clause (j), clause (l) and clause (c) of sub-section (1) of section 2 of the Mines Act, 1952 (35 of 1952);

(h) wages shall have the meaning assigned to it in clause (vi) of section 2 of the Payment of Wages Act, 1936 (4 of 1936);

(i) workman means, any person employed, in or in connection with the work of any establishment to do any skilled, semi-skilled or un-skilled manual, supervisory, technical or clerical work for hire or reward, whether the terms of employment be express or implied but does not include any such person (A) who is employed mainly in a managerial or administrative capacity; or

(B) who, being employed in a supervisory capacity draws wages exceeding five hundred rupees per mensem or exercises, either by the nature of the duties attached to the office or by reason of the powers vested in him, functions mainly of a managerial nature; or

(C) who is an out-worker, that is to say, a person to whom any articles and materials are given out by or on behalf of the principal employer to be made up, cleaned, washed, altered, ornamented, finished, repaired, adapted or otherwise processed for sale for the purposes of the trade or business of the principal employer and the process is to be carried out either in the home of the out-worker or in some other premises, not being premises under the control and management of the principal employer.

(2) Any reference in this Act to a law which is not in force in the State of Jammu and Kashmir shall, in relation to that State, be construed as a reference to the corresponding law, if any, in force in that State.

STATE AMENDMENT

Andhra Pradesh. In section 2, in sub-section (1), after clause (d), insert the following clause, namely:

(dd) core activity of an establishment means any activity for which the establishment is set up and includes any activity which is essential or necessary to the core activity, but does not include,

(1) sanitation works, including sweeping, cleaning, dusting and collection and disposal of all kinds of waste;

(2) watch and ward services including security service;

(3) canteen and catering services;

(4) loading and unloading operations;

(5) running of hospitals, educational and training institutions, guest houses, clubs and the like where they are in the nature of support services of an establishment;

(6) courier services which are in nature of support services of an establishment;

(7) civil and other constructional works, including maintenance;

(8) gardening and maintenance of lawns, etc.;

(9) house keeping and laundry services, etc., where they are in nature support services of an establishment;

(10) transport services including ambulance services;

(11) any activity of intermittent in nature even if that constitutes a core activity of an establishment; and

(12) any other activity which is incidental to the core activity:

Provided that the above activities by themselves are not the core activities of such establishment.

[ Vide Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) (Andhra Pradesh) (Amendment) Act, 2003 (Andhra Pradesh Act 10 of 2003), sec. 2.]

COMMENTS

If the workman is not hired through a contractor holding a valid licence under the Act, he would be a workman employed by the management itself; Workmen of Best & Crompton Industries Ltd. v. Best and Crompton Engineering Ltd., (1985) II LLN 169 (Mad).

1. Subs. by Act 14 of 1986, sec. 2, for clause (a) (w.r.e.f. 28-1-1986).

(1) The Central Government shall as soon as may be, constitute a board to be called the Central Advisory Contract Labour Board (hereinafter referred to as the Central Board) to advise the Central Government on such matters arising out of the administration of this Act as may be referred to it and to carry out other functions assigned to it under this Act.

(2) The Central Board shall consist of (a) a Chairman to be appointed by the Central Government;

(b) the Chief Labour Commissioner (Central), ex officio;

(c) such number of members, not exceeding seventeen but not less than eleven, as the Central Government may nominate to represent that Government, the Railways, the coal industry, the mining industry, the contractors, the workmen and, any other interests which, in the opinion of the Central Government, ought to be represented on the Central Board.

(3) The number of persons to be appointed as members from each of the categories specified in sub-section (2), the term of office and other conditions of service of, the procedure to be followed in the discharge of their functions by, and the manner of filling vacancies among, the members of the Central Board shall be such as may be prescribed :

Provided that the number of members nominated to represent the workmen shall not be less than the number of members nominated to represent the principal employers and the contractors.

state amendment

Andhra Pradesh.Omit section 3.

[Vide Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) (Andhra Pradesh) (Amendment) Act, 2003 (Andhra Pradesh Act 10 of 2003), sec. 3.]

(1) The State Government may constitute a board to be called the State Advisory Contract Labour Board (hereinafter referred to as the State Board) to advise the State Government on such matters arising out of the administration of this Act as may be referred to it and to carry out other functions assigned to it under this Act.

(2) The State Board shall consist of (a) a Chairman to be appointed by the State Government;

(b) the Labour Commissioner, ex officio, or in his absence any other officer nominated by the State Government in that behalf;

(c) such number of members, not exceeding eleven but not less than nine, as the State Government may nominate to represent that Government, the industry, the contractors, the workmen and any other interests which, in the opinion of the State Government, ought to be represented on the State Board.

(3) The number of persons to be appointed as members from each of the categories specified in sub-section (2), the term of office and other conditions of service of, the procedure to be followed in the discharge of their functions by, and the manner of filling vacancies among, the members of the State Board shall be such as may be prescribed:

Provided that the number of members nominated to represent the workmen shall not be less than the number of members nominated to represent the principal employees and the contractors.

state amendment

Andhra Pradesh.Omit section 4.

[Vide Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) (Andhra Pradesh) (Amendment) Act, 2003 (Andhra Pradesh Act 10 of 2003), sec. 3.]

(1) The Central Board or the State Board, as the case may be, may constitute such committees and for such purpose or purposes as it may think fit.

(2) The committee constituted under sub-section (1) shall meet at such time and places and shall observe such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of business at its meetings as may be prescribed.

(3) The members of a committee shall be paid such fees and allowances for attending its meetings as may be prescribed : Provided that no fees shall be payable to a member who is an officer of Government or of any corporation established by any law for the time being in force.

state amendment

Andhra Pradesh.Omit section 5.

[Vide Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) (Andhra Pradesh) (Amendment) Act, 2003 (Andhra Pradesh Act 10 of 2003), sec. 3.]

The appropriate Government may, by an order notified in the Official Gazette (a) appoint such persons, being Gazetted Officers of Government, as it thinks fit to be registering officers for the purposes of this Chapter; and

(b) define the limits, within which a registering officer shall exercise the powers conferred on him by or under this Act.

(1) Every principal employer of an establishment to which this Act applies shall, within such period as the appropriate Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, fix in this behalf with respect to establishments generally or with respect to any class of them, make an application to the registering officer in the prescribed manner for registration of the establishment :

Provided that the registering officer may entertain any such application for registration after expiry of the period fixed in this behalf if the registering officer is satisfied that the applicant was prevented by sufficient cause from making the application in time.

(2) If the application for registration is complete in all respects, the registering officer shall register the establishment and issue to the principal employer of the establishment a certificate of registration containing such particulars as may be prescribed.

COMMENTS

(i) Contravention of the provisions of section 7 is an offence; Deena Nath v. National Fertilizers, 1992 LLR 46.

(ii) An establishment of Contract Labour required registration under section 7 of the Act; Anapal v. J.S.E.B., 2003 (2) LLJ 335 (Jhar).

If the registering officer is satisfied, either on a reference made to him in this behalf or otherwise, that the registration of any establishment has been obtained by mis-representation or suppression of any material fact, or that for any other reason the registration has become useless or ineffective and, therefore requires to be revoked, the registering officer may, after giving an opportunity to the principal employer of the establishment to be heard and with the previous approval of the appropriate Government, revoke the registration.

No principal employer of an establishment, to which this Act applies, shall (a) in the case of an establishment required to be registered under section 7, but which has not been registered within the time fixed for the purpose under that section,

(b) in the case of an establishment the registration in respect of which has been revoked under section 8, employ contract labour in the establishment after the expiry of the period referred to in clause (a) or after the revocation of registration referred to in clause (b), as the case may be.

(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, the appropriate Government may, after consultation with the Central Board or, as the case may be, a State Board, prohibit, by notification in the Official Gazette, employment of contract labour in any process, operation or other work in any establishment.

(2) Before issuing any notification under sub-section (1) in relation to an establishment, the appropriate Government shall have regard to the conditions of work and benefits provided for the contract labour in that establishment and other relevant factors, such as (a) whether the process, operation or other work is incidental to, or necessary for the industry, trade, business, manufacture or occupation that is carried on in the establishment;

(b) whether it is of perennial nature, that is to say, it is of sufficient duration having regard to the nature of industry, trade, business, manufacture or occupation carried on in that establishment;

(c) whether it is done ordinarily through regular workmen in that establishment or an establishment similar thereto;

(d) whether it is sufficient to employ considerable number of whole-time workmen.

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