Daily Archives: June 22, 2016

The Nootropics Guy | Testing and Reviewing Nootropics

Posted: June 22, 2016 at 11:39 pm

Comments Off on The Best Nootropics for Focus and Memory

Although nootropics by their very nature generally have a positive impact on the users cognitive performance, it is important to be aware that different types focus on various factors. For example, some nootropics are more likely to make people feel energized while improving their memory, but others can have a sedative effect that makes them a good choice for people ... Read More

Comments Off on Phenylpiracetam 101

Phenylpiracetam is a nootropic (substance that improves mental function) that is very similar to, but 30 to 60 times stronger than, piracetam. Oddly enough, piracetam has been banned for use as a dietary supplement by the FDA, but phenylpiracetam is still available. Forms Phenylpiracetam takes three basic forms: the R-isomer (effective for stimulatory and mental improvement), the S-isomer, which is ... Read More

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I was contacted by one of the foundersof Maven Labs, wanting to know if Id be interested in trying their new product/new formula of Brain Stack. Of course, I accepted the offer. While I waitingfor the product to ship, I exchanged some emails with Paul(co-founderof Maven Labs). During these exchanges it gave me sometime to pick his brain about ... Read More

Comments Off on Shroom Tech Sport Review

Today I will be reviewing a slightly different product. Although it is not technically a nootropic by standard definition, it is something worth at least trying. ShroomTech Sport was formulated to help in the energy department. It is made by Onnit Labs, the same company that makes Alpha Brain(read that review here). Before I go into all the details of ... Read More

Comments Off on Focus Factor Review

Im sure most of you if not all of you have heard of Focus Factor. It has been around for quite a while now and was one of the first things that got me into Nootropics, and learning more about supplements to help improve memory and concentration. Focus Factor is labeled as Americas #1 Brain Health Supplement. Now that is ... Read More

Comments Off on Phenibut Review

*I would like to start off by saying that this product was provided free of charge by Health Supplement Wholesalers. They carry a wide variety of different supplements.* Phenibut was on my list of products to try for awhile now. Mainly because I have a lot of anxiety and stress, and this product is suppose to help with this. Ive ... Read More

Comments Off on Noopept Review

I started taking noopept a couple weeks back and I feel that now that I can make an accurate assumption how this product worked for ME. Please, keep in mind that this review is MY experience and yours may be different. The funny thing about nootropics is that certain ones seems to effect people differently. If you are not familiar ... Read More

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Introduction Phenibut was developed back in the 1960s in Russia. It is a unique product and some will say that it is not technically a nootropic. It is primarily used for its calming effects rather than as a cognitive enhancer. Though some claim that it does havecognition enhancing/nootropic effects. It is often used in stacks alongside other nootropics. How Does ... Read More

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Introduction Noopept is a white powdery substance that is in a class of its own. Although it is very similar to racetam nootropics, it is not technically a racetam. It was first developed in Russia, where it was prescribed to protect brain neurons and to help improvecognitive function. How Does it Work Through research and studies it was found that ... Read More

Comments Off on Alpha Brain Review Part 2

Well it has been about 30 days since I started to taking Alpha Brain. If you havent done so yet, I suggest starting and reading part 1 of this review first. My dosage was 2 capsules for the first 15 days, then I upped it to 4 capsules for the next 15 days. I will come right out and say ... Read More

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The Nootropics Guy | Testing and Reviewing Nootropics

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Piracetam (Nootropil) | Nootropics | Memory Supplements

Posted: at 11:39 pm

a) The Synthesis

Corneliu E. Giurgea, a Romanian psychologist and chemist formulated and synthesized Piracetam in 1964. It is a compound known to conform to the characteristics of both a nootropic and neuroprotective agent. It is prepared by condensing 2-pyrrolidinone with ethyl chloroacetate which then is converted into an amide with ammonia.

b) Use

Pharmacologically, as a neuroprotective agent, it is known to prevent damage to the brain/spinal cord from convulsions, ischemia, stroke, or trauma. The mechanism of action could be various but in effect, they either directly or indirectly minimize the damage produced by the excitatory amino acids. As nootropic agents, they are used to enhance learning, and or memory. In particular, they are recommended to reduce the cognitive deficits associated with dementia, i.e. loss of memory. It needs to be kept in mind that no nootropic drugs have been accepted for general use and they are still at an experimentary stage.

Piracetam is a racetam supplement and gets absorbed into the system very quickly. It has 100% bioavailability when taken in the form of capsules, powders, solutions ortablets. This racetam is excreted more or less, completely through the urine. It is used in renal dialysis and has the ability to cross placental barrier and diffuse itself across membranes. It is also naturally exerted in human breast milk so avoid using if you are pregnant.

Piracetam is proving its efficacy over a period of time on treating disorders relating to

While administration of Piracetam did not exhibit long-term benefits for the treatment of mild cognitive disorders, its neurprotective effect was demonstrated in its efficacy during coronary bypass surgery. It was also found to be effective in the treatment of cerebrovascular disorders. When its efficiency between the treatment for enhancing memory and reducing anxiety and depression was compared, it was found to be effective much later. As a supplement, it is useful for patients suffering from myoclonus epilepsy and tardive dyskinesia. When supplemented with a vasodilator drug, it was found to improve cognitive disabilities.

Some people also believe Piracetam can improve creativity. They believe this because it is reported to have a unique ability to increase the contact between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. This is understood to improve creativeness. The effect of improving the memory helps in the users ability to save and store more information in the brain. Piracetam is not a tonic drug, yet it has the effect of working inside our ion channels to improve blood flow which promotes membrane permeability to particular fragments of the brain. In short, the positive effects of Piracetam could be compared to snowballs that build off one another to improve the cognitive abilities over a long period.

Piracetam is currently available in some countries without a prescription. Sometimes it can be mixed with supplemental constituents like: Huperzine A., Choline, Alpha-Lipoic Acid and complex B vitamins. This is believed to enhance the nootropic effects of this racetam but there is little hard evidence to back this up and some scientists dispute it.

Piracetam is contradicted in patients with cerebral hemorrhage, end stage renal diseases. It should also not be used by those suffering from Hunlington Chorea. The safety of its usage during pregnancy and lactation has not been conclusively established.

It is known to produce adverse reaction in those suffering from gastrointestinal disorders, immune system disorders, nervous system disorders including headache, insomnia, somnolence, psychiatric disorders as agitation, confusion, skin disorders as dermatitis, pruritus etc

Some common side effects include:

The side effects are usually dosage dependent and some users may be more sensitive than others. It is recommended to consult a doctor before you take Piracetam.

Available in tablets, liquid, and powder. Advance Nootropics currently only carries powder form as Piracetam is needed in higher doses. Reports have shown dosages from .01/g 10g being used. We recommended to not go higher than 1g per dose to avoid complications. Be responsible, and read the directions.

Currently, the shelf life of our powdered Piracetam is 3 years. Store in a cool dry place and avoid contamination by keeping the package sealed. Keep package below 25 degrees C.

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Piracetam (Nootropil) | Nootropics | Memory Supplements

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Darwin’s Theory Of Evolution

Posted: at 11:37 pm

You are here: Science >> Darwin's Theory Of Evolution

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - The Premise Darwin's Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all life is related and has descended from a common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers -- all related. Darwin's general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely naturalistic (undirected) "descent with modification". That is, complex creatures evolve from more simplistic ancestors naturally over time. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an organism's genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival -- a process known as "natural selection." These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation. Over time, beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different organism (not just a variation of the original, but an entirely different creature).

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Natural Selection While Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a relatively young archetype, the evolutionary worldview itself is as old as antiquity. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Anaximander postulated the development of life from non-life and the evolutionary descent of man from animal. Charles Darwin simply brought something new to the old philosophy -- a plausible mechanism called "natural selection." Natural selection acts to preserve and accumulate minor advantageous genetic mutations. Suppose a member of a species developed a functional advantage (it grew wings and learned to fly). Its offspring would inherit that advantage and pass it on to their offspring. The inferior (disadvantaged) members of the same species would gradually die out, leaving only the superior (advantaged) members of the species. Natural selection is the preservation of a functional advantage that enables a species to compete better in the wild. Natural selection is the naturalistic equivalent to domestic breeding. Over the centuries, human breeders have produced dramatic changes in domestic animal populations by selecting individuals to breed. Breeders eliminate undesirable traits gradually over time. Similarly, natural selection eliminates inferior species gradually over time.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Slowly But Surely... Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a slow gradual process. Darwin wrote, "Natural selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a great and sudden leap, but must advance by short and sure, though slow steps." [1] Thus, Darwin conceded that, "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down." [2] Such a complex organ would be known as an "irreducibly complex system". An irreducibly complex system is one composed of multiple parts, all of which are necessary for the system to function. If even one part is missing, the entire system will fail to function. Every individual part is integral. [3] Thus, such a system could not have evolved slowly, piece by piece. The common mousetrap is an everyday non-biological example of irreducible complexity. It is composed of five basic parts: a catch (to hold the bait), a powerful spring, a thin rod called "the hammer," a holding bar to secure the hammer in place, and a platform to mount the trap. If any one of these parts is missing, the mechanism will not work. Each individual part is integral. The mousetrap is irreducibly complex. [4]

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - A Theory In Crisis Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a theory in crisis in light of the tremendous advances we've made in molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics over the past fifty years. We now know that there are in fact tens of thousands of irreducibly complex systems on the cellular level. Specified complexity pervades the microscopic biological world. Molecular biologist Michael Denton wrote, "Although the tiniest bacterial cells are incredibly small, weighing less than 10-12 grams, each is in effect a veritable micro-miniaturized factory containing thousands of exquisitely designed pieces of intricate molecular machinery, made up altogether of one hundred thousand million atoms, far more complicated than any machinery built by man and absolutely without parallel in the non-living world." [5]

And we don't need a microscope to observe irreducible complexity. The eye, the ear and the heart are all examples of irreducible complexity, though they were not recognized as such in Darwin's day. Nevertheless, Darwin confessed, "To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree." [6]

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Darwin's Theory Of Evolution

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Virtual Reality (VR) Leading Technology Company | VIRTALIS

Posted: at 11:37 pm

Visionary Render Visionary Render

Visionary Render software allows users to access and experience a real-time, interactive and immersive Virtual Reality (VR) environment created from huge 3D datasets.

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The ActiveWorks range of immersive, interactive 3D visualisation and VR systems set the industry benchmark for both price and performance.

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GeoVisionary was developed by Virtalis in collaboration with the British Geological Survey as specialist software for high-resolution visualisation of spatial data.

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Immerse yourself. Make Virtual a Reality with Virtalis.

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We are a world-leading Virtual Reality (VR) and advanced visualisation company. Our products and systems give you the chance to really understand your information and data, to interact with it, giving every project a new dimension.

Advanced visualisation, simulation and VR offers an immersive experience as well as a valuable return on investment. We will arm you with an essential set of tools to improve your competitive position.

ARE YOU READY TO MAKE VIRTUAL A REALITY?

"LEYLAND TRUCKS PROTOTYPES NOW ROLL OFF THE PRODUCTION LINE DESIGNED ENTIRELY WITH THE USE OF ADVANCED SIMULATION AND VIRTUAL REALITY (VR)."

Ian Cure, CAD System Manager LEYLAND

AT LEYLAND TRUCKS WE HAVE EXPERIENCED SAVINGS IN EXCESS OF 40% WHEN INVESTING IN THE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT STAGE OF BRINGING A NEW TRUCK TO MARKET.

Virtalis Partners With Granite Energy

Siemens UK Deploys Virtalis Technology for Digital Factory

GDP Architects Get a Different Perspective With Virtalis Technology

Virtalis Demo Day -HTC Vive and Virtalis Visionary Render

Industry 4.0 The Next Industrial Revolution

IAM Annual Conference 2016

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Virtual Reality (VR) Leading Technology Company | VIRTALIS

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Virtual Reality Immersion – How Virtual Reality Works …

Posted: at 11:37 pm

In a virtual reality environment, a user experiences immersion, or the feeling of being inside and a part of that world. He is also able to interact with his environment in meaningful ways. The combination of a sense of immersion and interactivity is called telepresence. Computer scientist Jonathan Steuer defined it as the extent to which one feels present in the mediated environment, rather than in the immediate physical environment. In other words, an effective VR experience causes you to become unaware of your real surroundings and focus on your existence inside the virtual environment.

Jonathan Steuer proposed two main components of immersion: depth of information and breadth of information. Depth of information refers to the amount and quality of data in the signals a user receives when interacting in a virtual environment. For the user, this could refer to a displays resolution, the complexity of the environments graphics, the sophistication of the systems audio output, et cetera. Steuer defines breadth of information as the number of sensory dimensions simultaneously presented. A virtual environment experience has a wide breadth of information if it stimulates all your senses. Most virtual environment experiences prioritize visual and audio components over other sensory-stimulating factors, but a growing number of scientists and engineers are looking into ways to incorporate a users sense of touch. Systems that give a user force feedback and touch interaction are called haptic systems.

For immersion to be effective, a user must be able to explore what appears to be a life-sized virtual environment and be able to change perspectives seamlessly. If the virtual environment consists of a single pedestal in the middle of a room, a user should be able to view the pedestal from any angle and the point of view should shift according to where the user is looking. Dr. Frederick Brooks, a pioneer in VR technology and theory, says that displays must project a frame rate of at least 20 - 30 frames per second in order to create a convincing user experience.

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Virtual Reality Immersion - How Virtual Reality Works ...

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Virtual Reality Toronto – VRTO – Virtual Reality, Toronto

Posted: at 11:37 pm

Welcome to the official site for the VRTO Meetup Virtual Reality, Toronto.

VRTO is a productivity-oriented think tank and discovery group for innovators, developers, inventors, storytellers, content producers, entrepreneurs, hackers, modders, programmers, pioneers, ontologists and adventurers in virtual, augmented and blended reality technologies, content and their development.

VRTO Meetups include practical, actionable, explorational, philosophical and technical discussions as well as content demos about contemporary virtual and augmented reality, opportunities and threats, blue sky and resource swapping.

Created in April of 2015 by founder Keram Malicki-Sanchez, the meetup has quickly grown into a variety of initiatives, community outreach, networks, festivals and conferences including the FIVARS VR/AR International Stories festival and competition.

VRTO puts on public-facing events in undercovered areas of the market; in 2015 this included:

Toronto is a powerhouse for independent games development, technology and filmmaking and arts and culture. This meetup is targeted towards drawing the brightest and best, the curious and motivated, the adventurous and courageous together with the aim of pushing this paradigm-shifting new medium towards its best and upper limits.

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Virtual Reality Toronto - VRTO - Virtual Reality, Toronto

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ai – Wiktionary

Posted: at 11:36 pm

English[edit] Etymology[edit]

Originated 168595, from Brazilian Portuguese a, from Old Tupi.

ai (plural ais or ai)

ai

From Proto-Albanian *a-ei (compound of proclitic particle a and ei), from Proto-Indo-European *hy- (he, this (one)). Compare Latin is, German er, Lithuanian js, Sanskrit (aym)).

ai msg (accusative at, dative atij, ablative atij)

forms of ai

Albanian personal pronouns

ai

ai

From Proto-Oceanic *wai, from Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *wai, from Proto-Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *wai, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *wahi.

ai

ai

Chuukese possessive determiners

ai

ai

From Latin allium.

aim (plural ais)

ai

From Proto-Polynesian *qai

ai

ai

Hiri Motu personal pronouns

ai

ai

From Proto-Yeniseian *a ("I"). Compare Arin and Assan aj ("I") and Pumpokol ad ("I").

ai

From English eye.

ai

From English I

ai

From English high.

ai

ai

ai

ai (Latin spelling, Hebrew spelling )

a

ai

Compare Russian (oj, ow!).

i: IPA(key): /a/

a: IPA(key): //

i! or a!

ai

ai

ai

ai

ai

ai

ai

ai (masculine plural possessive)

From Latin allium / alium.

aim (uncountable)

declension of ai (singular only)

ai

(tu) ai (modal auxiliary, second-person singular form of avea, used with infinitives to form conditional tenses)

ai

ai

ai

From Proto-Malayo-Chamic *air, from Proto-Malayo-Sumbawan *wair, from Proto-Sunda-Sulawesi *wair, from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *wahi.

ai

From English eye.

ai

From English I.

ai

From English eye.

ai

ai

ai

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ai - Wiktionary

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Freedom Synonyms, Freedom Antonyms | Thesaurus.com

Posted: at 11:33 pm

It's awful to be chained, especially for a dog like me that loves his freedom.

We've got to work not so much for equality in freedom as for equality in responsibility to the nation.

We are with them when they enlist in the great army of freedom.

So petty and local was Ziliotto's party, with no idea of the world or of freedom.

But freedom was not absolute; it was to be dependent on the moral law.

How fared the spirit of Lafayette during this debauchery in the name of freedom?

She should get her freedom there, where she had forbidden him to come.

Soldier of freedom, thou camest to us in the time of our greatest need.

In all lands it was hailed as the end of despotism and the triumph of democracy and freedom.

There was no watch kept, and the captives had no indication that they were abridged of their freedom.

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Freedom Synonyms, Freedom Antonyms | Thesaurus.com

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Hedonism Wikipedia

Posted: at 11:32 pm

Hedonism (av grekiska hedone, "njutning", "lustknsla") r en familj av filosofiska och psykologiska teorier som stter njutning som centralt ml fr mnniskans strvanden.[1]Psykologisk hedonism r teorin om att skande efter njutning och undvikande av lidande r mnniskans enda drivkraft eller motivation. Etisk hedonism r teorin om att mngden resulterad njutning r den enda mttstocken p en handlings moraliska vrde. Vrdeteoretisk hedonism r teorin att njutning r det enda intrinsikalt vrdefulla.[2] Dessutom talar man idag ofta om vad som utgr ett gott liv, eller vad som bidrar till ens vlmende, och hedonistens svar r d att njutning r det enda betydelsefulla i skapandet av en mnniskas livsbana. Idag ses hedonismen som en av de tre mest betydelsefulla teorierna om vlmende, bredvid begrsrelaterade teorier och objektiv lista-teorier.[3]

Hedonismen sprar sina rtter till antikens filosofer. ven om Platon under en period tycks ha haft hedonistiska sikter s r Epikuros utan tvekan teorins - i alla dess dtida varianter - mest betydelsefulla fresprkare. Under vissa perioder av historien har ngon form av hedonism fungerat nstan som ett axiom i filosofiska sammanhang, men dess nstfljande storhetsperiod gde rum under senare halvan av 1800-talet med fretrdare som Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill och Henry Sidgwick.

Termen "hedonist" anvnds ibland till vardags som synonym till "livsnjutare".

Epikuros r historiskt sett hedonismens frfader, i teorins alla dvarande bemrkelser. Han menade att det som r efterstrvat ocks r det som r efterstrvansvrt. Han betraktade praktisk vishet som frmgan att p ett korrekt stt kunna kalkylera mngden njutning och lidande. Dygder och rationell aktivitet hrleder sitt vrde frn njutning och r sledes endast instrumentellt vrdefulla. Epikuros skilde mellan aktiva och stillsamma njutningar och ansg att de senare r bttre eftersom de varar lngre. Distinktionen ska inte ses som synonym till kroppsliga- respektive sjlsliga njutningar. ven minnen av njutningar r njutningar. Epikuros hedonistiska instllning hr delvis samman med hans radikala empirism; det enda vi har sker kunskap om r vra sensationer och bland dem ingr njutning och lidande.

Platon hade en hedonistisk period vilket framfr allt mrks i hans dialog Protagoras. Hans sokratiska antagande, att man inte kan veta det goda utan att ocks gra det goda, kombinerat med hans psykologiska hedonism, ledde honom till att acceptera en slags etisk hedonism. Han vergav den emellertid senare till frmn fr en form av vrdeteoretisk pluralism, detta eftersom han vergav den psykologiska hedonismen. Platons senare lyckobegrepp innefattar bde njutning och kunskap.

Aristoteles menade att njutning kompletterar rationell aktivitet och r allts inte det enda, eller ens det hgsta, goda. Han menade att endast de "dla njutningarna" r vrdefulla och att deras vrde varierar med vrdet p aktiviteten som de framspringer ur. Hos Aristoteles hade "lycka" en mer central plats n "njutning" och den frra innefattar delvis den senare.

Den brittiske filosofen Jeremy Bentham var utilitarist. Han menade att all njutning r god, vilket gr honom till kvantitativ utilitarist, till skillnad frn Mill som skilde mellan njutning av olika kvaliteter. Bentham menade att det r omjligt att bevisa hedonismen, den utgr grunden fr alla andra frklaringskedjor. Han stllde sig bakom bde psykologisk- och etisk hedonism och gjorde ingen skarp distinktion mellan vad vi gr och vad vi br gra. Njutning fungerar bde som frklarande- och rttfrdigande orsak till vrt beteende.

John Stuart Mill ansg inte heller att ett bevis behvde ges fr att rttfrdiga hedonismen, men presenterade likvl ett argument som bestr av tv steg. Fr det frsta frsker han bevisa hedonismen och fr det andra frsker han drifrn rttfrdiga utilitarismen. Hans frsta steg gr i korthet ut p att han pstr att det enda trvrda r det vi faktiskt trr. Drifrn frsker han bevisa utilitarismens rimlighet genom att formulera ett njutningsbegrepp som inte plockar ut individer. Mill fresprkade en kvalitativ hedonism, det vill sga en hedonism som skilde mellan kvalitativt olika njutningar. Han gjorde ingen distinktion mellan lycka och njutning. Hans argument har kritiserats av bland andra G.E. Moore.

En annan brittisk filosof som emellertid frnekade den psykologiska hedonismen var Henry Sidgwick. Han omfattade nd den etiska hedonismen och likstllde njutning med "trvrda medvetandetillstnd", en fenomenologiskt heterogen klass av mentala tillstnd. Sidgwick stllde upp fyra, enligt honom sjlvklara, principer som stdde hans utilitarism. Fr det frsta betyder "rtt fr mig" "rtt fr alla". Fr det andra r tidslig placering irrelevant. Fr det tredje har all njutning lika vrde, oavsett vems. Fr det fjrde r det alltid rationellt att efterstrva det goda.

Under 1900-talet upplevde hedonismen en stark tillbakagng. Roger Crisp har identifierat tre viktiga anledningar till att filosofer brjade betrakta hedonismen som tillbakavisad. Fr det frsta betraktade mnga filosofer John Stuart Mills infrande av distinktionen mellan kvalitativt olika njutningar som antingen ett vergivande av hedonismen eller som inkoherent. Fr det andra har de sttt sig p G.E. Moores teori om intrinsikala vrden och med hjlp av denna argumenterat fr att det r "absurt" att hvda att njutning skulle vara det enda intrinsikalt goda. Slutligen har de hnvisat till Robert Nozicks tankeexperiment om upplevelsemaskinen, vilket ofta anvnds fr att snabbt avvisa hedonismen som en teori om vlmende och sedan g vidare med att underska mer levande teorier.[4][5]

Eftersom hedonismen placerar njutning s centralt har det med tiden dykt upp en rad olika teorier om vad njutning egentligen r. Att definiera njutning har varit viktigt inte bara fr hedonisterna, utan ven fr kritikerna, som med hjlp av en viss definition har frskt visa att hedonismen r felaktig eller kontraintuitiv.

Enligt upplevelse-orienterade frklaringar r njutning och smrta distinkta medvetna upplevelser, eller tminstone delar av sdana upplevelser.[6]Gilbert Ryle har framfrt ett argument mot uppfattningen om njutning som en sensation, som gr ut p att alla sensationer har ett speciellt omrde dr de knns, men att olika njutningar saknar ett sdant gemensamt "knningsomrde".[7] Wayne Sumner har gjort en distinktion mellan tv huvudsakliga teorier om njutning som r upplevelse-orienterade: den intrinsikala- och den extrinsikala uppfattningen.[8]

Enligt teorin om njutning som en intrinsikal upplevelse "upplevs" njutning p ett speciellt stt; det har en distinkt intrinsikal karaktr, exempelvis genom dess fenomenologi, dess qualia eller knslan som det medfr. Bland andra G.E. Moore uppfattade njutning p detta stt. Han menade att njutning var ett odefinierbart "ngonting", som dock r separerbart frn allting annat. ven om detta "ngonting" inte gr att frklara eller beskriva nrmare, s gr det helt klart att isolera det som just njutning.

En klassisk invndning mot denna syn p njutning r att vi genom introspektion upptcker att det inte finns ngon gemensam komponent hos allt det vi ser som njutningatt lsa en vlskriven bok, att ha sex, att lsa ett matematiskt problemsom gr det till just njutning.[4] Henry Sidgwick formulerade denna invndning i sin The Method of Ethics.[9] Ett annat argument, som inte bara riktar sig mot denna uppfattning om njutning, gr ut p att inte allt det som definieras som njutning faktiskt r njutning och kan sgas ka personens vlmende. Slutligen gr en tredje invndning ut p att inte endast njutning r intrinsikalt vrdefullt. Dessa tre invndningar kallas ibland frkortat fr "none such", "not all" och "not only" p engelska.[6]

Den extrinsikala synen p njutning som en distinkt upplevelse liknar den intrinsikala i det att bda ser p njutning som en upplevelse, exempelvis en knsla eller en mer kognitiv upplevelse. Den skiljer sig emellertid frn denna i det att dess kriterium fr vad som r njutning fokuserar p utomstende omstndigheter kring upplevelsen, snarare n egenskaper hos upplevelsen sjlv. Den gr ut p att en upplevelse r njutning om och endast om personen som har upplevelsen ocks har en speciell positiv attityd gentemot den. Exakt vilken attityd det rr sig om skiljer sig t; det kan vara en trosfrestllning, frmodan, frvntan, begr, preferens etc. Sidgwick anammade detta synstt i och med hans avvisande av den intrinsikala uppfattningen: "Pleasure as a feeling which is at least implicitly apprehended as desirable" (fritt versatt ungefr: "Njutning en knsla som tminstone implicit uppfattas som efterstrvansvrd").[9]

Den extrinsikala uppfattningen undviker argumentet om att det inte finns ngon gemensam komponent hos allting vi kallar njutning. Fresprkaren av denna uppfattning kan g med p att det vi kallar njutning innefattar en bred uppsttning knslor och mentala tillstnd utan ngon minsta gemensam nmnare, men nd kategorisera allt detta som njutning p basis av personens instllning gentemot dessa tillstnd. Den extrinsikala uppfattningen har dock egna problem. Det allvarligaste av dessa r "killjoy"-argumentet. Enligt detta argument finns det medvetandetillstnd som vi har de relevanta attityderna mot, men som knappast kan betraktas som njutningsfulla. Ett exempel r skam; man kan knna skam infr ngonting man har gjort, och faktiskt vilja knna skammen, som ett bevis p att man r en moraliskt knslig person. Men om man har en sdan attityd gentemot skamknslan s tycks det enligt den extrinsikala uppfattningen implicera att skammen r njutningsfull, vilket fr de flesta av oss r starkt kontraintuitivt. Denna invndning r en av de s kallade "not all"-invndningarna.

En annan klass av teorier om njutning r de attityd-orienterade frklaringarna. Enligt dessa bestr njutning av ett intentionalt tillstnd, som en trosfrestllning eller ett begr. Dessa intentionala tillstnd kan vara riktade antingen mot en sjlv eller mot den yttre vrlden. Skillnaden frn de upplevelse-orienterade frklaringarna r att dessa attityd-orienterade teorier identifierar njutning med sjlva attityden, snarare n attitydens objekt, som den extrinsikala uppfattningen gr gllande.

Attityd-orienterade frklaringar har den frdelen att de undviker en del av invndningarna som riktas mot upplevelse-orienterade frklaringar. De kan ven redogra fr njutningens kvantitet, genom att hnvisa till sdant som lngden och intensiteten hos attityderna. Dremot kan "killjoy"-invndningen ven glla fr dessa teorier; det verkar konstigt att pst att attityden, i det frra exemplet med skammen, till skamknslan var njutningsfull, ven om det var en positiv attityd. Ett annat problem r existensen av defekta attityder, som missriktade eller destruktiva attityder.

Fred Feldman menar att stndpunkten som bland andra Sidgwick fr fram, att njutning r intrinsikalt vrdefullt p grund av vissa attityder gentemot knslan som r njutningsfull, kombinerat med G.E. Moores syn p intrinsikalt vrde, r inkoherent. Feldman analyserar frst Sidgwicks definition av njutning som "a feeling which, when experienced by intelligent beings, is at least implicitly apprehended as desirable...." Denna syn p njutning har den frdelen att den undviker heterogenitets-argumentet, det vill sga invndningen att olika sorters njutningar (njutningsfulla knslor) inte har ngot gemensamt som kan pekas ut som utgrandes sjlva njutningen. ven andra filosofer har anammat en liknande syn p njutning, ven om de har bytt ut Sidgwicks "desirable" mot exempelvis "wish to prolong". Det viktiga i sammanhanget r att man definierar njutning i termer av ngon extern instllning gentemot knslan som sgs vara sjlva njutningen.

Feldman gr sedan vidare och analyserar den mooreanska uppfattningen om intrinsikalt vrde. I korthet gr Feldmans argument ut p att Moores begrepp om intrinsikalt vrde sger att dessa vrden endast supervenierar p objektets intrinsikala egenskaper, det vill sga egenskaper som r helt oberoende av objektets frhllande till resten av vrlden. Men om en knsla av njutning r vrdefull p grund av att den som har knslan betraktar den som njutningsfull tycks dess vrde vara extrinsikalt, eftersom det r beroende av agentens instllning till knslan; en instllning som r extern i frhllande till knslan. Allts r Sidgwicks hedonism inkoherent.

Efter att ha identifierat denna inkoherens hos Sidgwicks attityd-orienterade syn p njutning frsker Feldman att komma med ett alternativt synstt som undviker denna svrighet. Han gr detta genom att frndra definitionen av njutning. Feldman behller synen p njutning som beroende av personers attityder, men talar om "propositionella attityder". Dessa attityder r inte knslor; de r riktade mot olika sakfrhllanden. Att njuta av ngonting r att njuta av att ett specifikt sakfrhllande freligger. Han identifierar vidare sdana sakfrhllanden som bestende av en person som njuter av att han eller hon sjlv till en viss intensitet upplever ngonting vid ngon tidpunkt, det vill sga en individ, en viss intensitet av intrinsikal propositionell njutning, en speciell tidpunkt och ett specifikt objekt.

Hedonismen har kritiserats av en rad filosofer, inte minst under 1900-talet. G.E. Moore argumenterade i sin Principia Ethica mot vrdeteoretisk hedonism, teorin om att lycka eller njutning r det enda intrinsikalt goda.[10] Moore ansg att en hedonist r tvungen att g med p att en vrld med endast njutning, utan sdant som krlek, kunskap och sknhet, skulle vara bttre n en vrld som innehll dessa ting men som var lite mindre njutbar. Denna tanke fungerar som ett reductio ad absurdum-argument hos honom; det vill sga, eftersom hedonismen leder till detta s mste den anses vara felaktig som teori om intrinsikala vrden.

Ett annat argument som av mnga har betraktats som en slutgiltig vederlggning av hedonismen och andra mentala tillstnds-relaterade teorier om vrde r Robert Nozicks tankeexperiment "upplevelsemaskinen". Nozick tnker sig en maskin som kan framkalla vilka mentala upplevelser som helst hos personen som anvnder den. En hedonist br d rimligtvis g med p att ett liv i en sdan maskin, med de ultimata instllningarna, br vara ett fullndat liv. Eftersom det endast r de mentala tillstnden som r vrdefulla s br det inte spela ngon roll huruvida dessa r ett resultat av faktiska hndelser eller artificiellt producerade av avancerade neuropsykologer. Men detta strider mot de flesta mnniskors intuitioner om ett gott liv; vi vill exempelvis inte bara uppleva krlek, vi vill lska och bli lskade p riktigt.

Nozicks argument framstod lnge, och framstr fortfarande fr mnga, som ett slutgiltigt slag mot hedonismen. P senare tid har detta emellertid delvis kommit att frndras. Filosofen Matthew Silverstein skrev r 2000 en artikel i tidskriften "Social Theory & Practice" med titeln In defense of happiness: A response to the Experience Machine. Silverstein menar att han identifierar vissa gmda premisser i Nozicks resonemang, premisser som vid en nrmare underskning inte visar sig vara hllbara. En betydande brist hos Nozick r, enligt Silverstein, att han frn det faktum att vi vill ha ("desire") mer n blott simulerade lyckoupplevelser i vrt liv, drar slutsatsen att mnniskors vlfrd ("well-being") beror p mer n blott simulerade lyckoupplevelser. Om man tolkar hedonismen som en teori om vad som utgr ett gott liv, vad som betingar en mnniskas vlfrd, s behver inte mnniskors faktiska viljeattityder vara relevanta fr huruvida hedonismen r rimlig eller inte. Silverstein tar upp flera exempel dr tillfredsstllandet av det vi faktiskt vill inte bidrar till att ka vr vlfrd, till exempel vad gller irrationella begr. Om man kan skilja mellan vad en person vill och vad som bidrar till dennes vlfrd tycks Nozicks upplevelsemaskinsargument tminstone vara frsvagat.[11]

Jason Kawall medger att de allra flesta av oss skulle vlja att inte kopplas in i Nozicks upplevelsemaskin, om vi fick det valet. Men, menar han, detta r inte ett argument mot mentala tillstnds-teorier om vlmende. En fresprkare av mentala tillstnds-teorier, det vill sga en person som hvdar att endast mentala tillstnd bidrar till vr vlfrd, positivt och negativt, kan g med p att vi vrdestter andra saker n vra egna mentala tillstnd. Vi har moraliska vrden, vi har frpliktelser mot andra mnniskor etc. Det r emellertid konsistent att bde hvda att det finns sdana vrden, och att de inte r komponenter av vr vlfrd.

Misstaget som kritikerna enligt Kawall begr, r att knyta mental tillstnds-fresprkaren (hrefter endast "fresprkaren") till stndpunkten att alla vrden betingas av sitt frhllande till mentala tillstnd. Det enda fresprkaren behver hvda r att endast sdant som visar sig i mentala tillstnd pverkar vr vlfrd. Uppfyllandet av ens frpliktelser pverkar ens vlfrd endast i den mn som jag r medveten om att man faktiskt uppfyller dem. Vidare kan det vara vrdefullt att uppfylla ens frpliktelser ven om detta inte tar sig uttryck i mentala tillstnd. Detta vrde r d emellertid inte ett "vlmende-vrde", och att g med p detta r fullt frenligt med att hvda att endast mentala tillstnd bidrar till ens vlfrd. Det kan till och med vara s att andra vrden str i konflikt med ens vlmende, p s stt att uppfyllandet (i de fall dr det rr sig om stadkommanden) av de frra frsmrar det senare. terigen ppekar Kawall att detta inte r ngot problem fr fresprkaren. Slutligen pekar Kawall p att kritikerna tycks vara knutna till en underlig stndpunkt: att soldaten som offrar sitt eget liv fr sina kamrater gr detta fr att ka sitt eget vlmende. Fresprkaren kan frklara detta mer i enlighet med vra intuitioner; nmligen genom att frklara att han offrade sitt eget vlmende fr sina kamraters vlmende.

Heterogenitetsargumentet riktar sig till intrinsikala njutningsteorier. Det gr ut p att det inte finns ngon gemensam komponent hos allt det vi kallar njutning, som r det som konstituerar njutningen. Filosofen Stuart Rachels har presenterat tre frslag p hur en hedonist kan bemta denna invndning:[12]

Roger Crisp menar att det tredje frslaget egentligen r en form av externalism, och att de andra tv r ganska lika varandra. Han argumenterar fr att i synnerhet det andra frslaget gr att bygga vidare p, och gr sjlv ocks detta. Han skriver (fritt versatt): "Om fresprkaren av heterogenitetsargumentet sker efter ngonting i stil med en speciell sensation, som stma eller ett kittlande eller en knsla i ngon speciell del av kropppen [...] eller ngonting som en sinnlig egenskap som rdhet, i njutningsfulla erfarenheter, s kommer hon att misslyckas. Men det finns ett stt som njutningsfulla erfarenheter knns p: de knns njutningsfulla." Crisps pong r att det "r p ett speciellt stt" att knna njutning. Han medger att olika njutningar kraftigt skiljer sig t, men menar att det nd finns ngonting som r gemensamt fr dem alla, nmligen att de "knns bra".

Efter kritik av sina samtida om att hans hedonism var en "svinens filosofi" frskte John Stuart Mill frsvara sig genom att infra en distinktion mellan hga och lga njutningar. Detta ansgs av mnga vara antingen ett vergivande av hedonismen eller inkoherent.[13][14]

Roger Crisps teori, som bygger vidare p Mills, mjliggr enligt honom sjlv att man kan skilja olika njutningar t kvalitativt. Crisp menar att det gr att rdda Mills distinktion, som tycks vara ndvndig fr att hedonismen ska knnas intuitivt riktig. Om man omformulerar Mills uppfattning om intensitet och lngd som att det handlar om sjlva upplevelsens intensitet och lngd snarare n njutningen i sig, s kan man gra samma sak med upplevelsers kvalitet. Upplevelser kan allts vara lngt mer njutningsfulla just p grund av att de r av hgre kvalitet, men pongen r att det inte r sjlva njutningen som r av hgre kvalitet. Ett annat stt att uttrycka detta p r genom att skilja mellan upprknande och frklarande teorier. Litterr kvalitet kan till exempel ing i en upprkning av faktorer som kar ens vlmende, men det r samtidigt konsistent att frklara detta genom att hvda att anledningen till att det gr just detta r att det kar njutningen i upplevelsen. P det stter menar Crisp att han lser dilemmat som Mill stlls infr med sin distinktion mellan hga och lga njutningar. Detta r allts ingen snllare tolkning av Mill utan ett vergivande eller omformulering av en del av hans teori.

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Rationalism in Philosophy

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Rationalism is the philosophical stance according to which reason is the ultimate source of human knowledge. It rivals empiricism according to which the senses suffice in justifying knowledge. In a form or another, rationalism features in most philosophical tradition; in the Western one, it boasts a long and distinguished list of followers, including Plato, Descartes, and Kant.

The Case for Rationalism How do we come to know objects, through the senses or through reason?

Descartes brought some of the strongest arguments to believe that the latter option is the correct one. Consider polygons (i.e. closed, plane figures in geometry). How do we come to recognize features of polygons; for example, how do we know that something is a triangle? The senses here may seem to play a key role: we see that a figure has three sides.

But, now imagine to have two figures in front of you, the first with a thousand sides and the other with a thousand and one sides. Which is which? Well, presumably the senses will not suffice in providing an answer to this question: you will need reasoning (e.g. counting) in order to tell them apart.

For Descartes, reason is involved in all of our knowledge. This is because the nuances of the objects we encounter are far more than we can detect by the senses alone. Consider looking at a person waving at you for ten seconds: what you see are literally hundreds of different images; how do you know that they belong to one and the same gesture? And how do you know they belong to one and the same person?

Now suppose that the person you are looking at is yourself in the mirror: how do you know you are looking at one person?

Reason alone can explain puzzles such as the one above. Other authors offered different arguments, such as Platos allegory of the cave or Spinozas arguments for Gods existence in the Ethics.

The Self and Causation, and Ethical Normativity Since the justification of knowledge occupies a central role in philosophical theorizing, it is typical to sort out philosophers on the basis of their stance with respect to the rationalist vs empiricist debate. Rationalism indeed characterizes a wide range of philosophical topics, three main ones being personal identity, the nature of causation, and the source of ethical normativity.

Consider the self and causation first. Rationalists typically claim that the self is known through a rational intuition, which is irreducible to any sensorial perception of ourselves; empiricists, on the other hand, reply that the unity of the self is illusory. With respect to causation, rationalists claim that causal links are known through reason, while empiricists reply that it is only because of habit that we come be convinced that say fire is hot.

Finally, what is it that makes a certain action the one that we ought, morally, to perform? Kant argued that the ethical worth of an action can be understood only from a rational perspective; ethical evaluation is a rational game in which one or more rational agents envisage their actions under hypothetical conditions if all the time someone who were in those circumstances you are facing, that person were to act in the way you are thinking of acting, would that seem feasible?

More generally, Kant stands in a category of its own when it comes to rationalism. His distinction between a priori and a posteriori judgments, indeed, can be seen as a modern way of restating the opposition between judgments that would be accepted (a posteriori) and those that would be off-limits (a priori) for an empiricist.

It should be noted, however, that not all rationalists defend analogous positions across the board. For example, Spinoza, Leibniz, and Kant, despite being all rationalists, defended vastly different views in ethics.

Further Online Readings and Sources "Rationalism vs. Empiricism" at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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Rationalism in Philosophy

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