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What is quantum computing? | McKinsey

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Qubit bloch sphere

Flip a coin. Heads or tails, right? Sure, once we see how the coin lands. But while the coin is still spinning in the air, its neither heads nor tails. Its some probability of both.

This grey area is the simplified foundation of quantum computing.

Digital computers have been making it easier for us to process information for decades. But quantum computers are poised to take computing to a whole new level. Quantum computersrepresent a completely new approach to computing. And while they wont replace todays computers, by using the principles of quantum physics, they will be able to solvevery complex statistical problems that todays computers cant. Quantum computing has so much potential and momentum that McKinsey has identified it as one of the next big trends in tech. Quantum computing alonejust one of three main areas of emerging quantum technologycould account for nearly $1.3 trillion in valueby 2035.

Heres how it works: classical computing, the technology that powers your laptop and smartphone, is built on bits. A bit is a unit of information that can store either a zero or a one. By contrast, quantum computing is built on quantum bits, or qubits, which can store zeros and ones. Qubits can represent any combination of both zero and one simultaneouslythis is called a superposition.

When classical computers solve a problem with multiple variables, they must conduct a new calculation every time a variable changes. Each calculation is a single path to a single result. Quantum computers, however, have a larger working space, which means they can explore a massive number of paths simultaneously. This possibility means that quantum computers can be much, much fasterthan classical computers.

But the first real proof that quantum computers could handle problems too complicated for classical computers didnt arrive until 2019, when Google announced that its quantum computer had made a major breakthrough: it solved a problem in 200 seconds that would have taken a classical computer 10,000 years.

Although this was an important milestone in computing, it was more of a theoretical leap forward rather than a practical one, since the problem the quantum computer solved had no real-world use at all. But were rapidly approaching a time when quantum computers will have a real impact on our lives. Read on to find out how.

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Todays classical computers are relatively straightforward. They work with a limited set of inputs and use an algorithm and spit out an answerand the bits that encode the inputs do not share information about one another. Quantum computers are different. For one thing, when data are input into the qubits, the qubits interact with other qubits, allowing for many different calculations to be done simultaneously. This is why quantum computers are able to work so much faster than classical computers. But thats not the end of the story: quantum computers dont deliver one clear answer like classical computers do; rather, they deliver a range of possible answers.

For calculations that are limited in scope, classical computers are still the preferred tools. But for very complex problems, quantum computers can save time by narrowing down the range of possible answers.

Quantum computers arent like your average desktop computer. Its unlikely that you will be able to wander down to a store and pick one up. The kind of quantum computers that are capable of solving major problems will be expensive, complicated machines operated by just a few key players.

Over the next few years, the major players in quantum computing, as well as a small cohort of start-ups, will steadily increase the number of qubits that their computers can handle. Progress is expected to be slow: McKinsey estimates that by 2030, only about 5,000 quantum computerswill be operational. The hardware and software required to handle the most complex problems may not exist until 2035 or later.

But some businesses will begin to derive value from quantum well before then. At first, businesses will receive quantum services via the cloud, from the same providers they use now. Several major computing companies have already announced their quantum cloud offerings.

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One major obstacle to the advancement of quantum computing is that qubits are volatile. Whereas a bit in todays computers can be in a state of either one or zero, a qubit can be any possible combination of the two. When a qubit changes its status, inputs can be lost or altered, throwing off the accuracy of the results. Another obstacle to development is that a quantum computer operating at the scale needed to deliver significant breakthroughs will require potentially millions of qubits to be connected. The few quantum computers that exist today are nowhere near that number.

Slowly, at first. For the time being, quantum computing will be used alongsideclassical computing to solve multivariable problems. One example? Quantum computers can narrow the range of possible solutions to a finance or logistics problem, helping a company reach the best solution a little bit faster. This kind of slower progress will be the norm until quantum computing advances enough to deliver massive breakthroughs.

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Quantum computers can narrow the range of possible solutions to a finance or logistics problem, helping a company reach the best solution a little bit faster.

Quantum computers have four fundamental capabilitiesthat differentiate them from todays classical computers:

As these capabilities develop at pace with quantum computing power, use cases will proliferate.

Experts believe that quantum computers are powerful enough to eventually be able to model even the most complex molecules in the human body.

Research suggests that four industries stand to reap the greatest short-term benefits from quantum computing based on the use cases discussed in the previous section. Collectivelyand conservativelythe value at stake for these industries could be as much as $1.3 trillion.

These four industries likely stand to gain the most from quantum computing. But leaders in every sector canand shouldprepare for the inevitable quantum advancements of the next few years.

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According to McKinseys analysis, quantum computing is still years away from widespread commercial application. Other quantum technologies such as quantum communication (QComms) and quantum sensing (QS) could become available much earlier. Quantum communication will enable strong encryption protocols that could greatly increase the security of sensitive information. QComms enables the following functions:

Quantum sensing allows for more accurate measurements than ever before, including of physical properties like temperature, magnetic fields, and rotation. Plus, once optimized and decreased in size, quantum sensors will be able to measure data that cant be captured by current sensors.

The markets for QComms and QS are currently smaller than those for quantum computing, which has so far attracted most of the headlines and funding. But McKinsey expects both Qcomms and QS to attract serious interest and funding in the future. The risks are significant, but the potential payoff is high: by 2030, QS and QComms could generate $13 billion in revenues.

Learn more about quantum sensors and quantum communications.

A wide talent gap exists between the business need for quantum computing and the number of quantum professionals available to meet that need. This skill gap could jeopardize potential value creation, which McKinsey estimates to be as much as $1.3 trillion.

McKinsey research has found that there is only one qualified quantum candidatefor every three quantum job openings. By 2025, McKinsey predicts that less than 50 percent of quantum jobs will be filled, unless there are significant changes to the talent pool or predicted rate of quantum-job creation.

Here are five lessons derived from the AI talent journey that can help organizations build the quantum talent they need to capture value:

Learn more about McKinsey Digitaland check out quantum-computing job opportunities if youre interested in working at McKinsey.

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What is quantum computing? | McKinsey

Wave Photonics and Partners Receive s 500 Thousand ($627K USD) Grant from Innovate UK for Researching Photonics Chips for Trapped Ion Processors -…

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Wave Photonics and Partners Receive s 500 Thousand ($627K USD) Grant from Innovate UK for Researching Photonics Chips for Trapped Ion Processors  Quantum Computing Report

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Wave Photonics and Partners Receive s 500 Thousand ($627K USD) Grant from Innovate UK for Researching Photonics Chips for Trapped Ion Processors -...

Timeline: Who is Julian Assange? | Reuters

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FILE PHOTO: WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange arrives at the Westminster Magistrates Court, after he was arrested in London, Britain April 11, 2019. REUTERS/Hannah McKay/File Photo Acquire Licensing Rights

(Reuters) - WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange will seek to be released from prison on bail on Wednesday after a British judge refused to extradite to him to the United States, where he is wanted to face criminal charges.

Following are some key events and details in Assange's life:

July 1971 - Assange is born in Townsville, Australia, to parents involved in theatre. As a teenager, he gains a reputation as a computer programmer, and in 1995 is fined for computer hacking but avoids prison on condition he does not offend again.

2006 - Founds WikiLeaks, creating an internet-based "dead letter drop" for leakers of classified or sensitive information.

April 5, 2010 - WikiLeaks releases leaked video from a U.S. helicopter showing an air strike that killed civilians in Baghdad, including two Reuters news staff.

July 25, 2010 - WikiLeaks releases over 91,000 documents, mostly secret U.S. military reports about the Afghanistan war.

October, 2010 - WikiLeaks releases 400,000 classified military files chronicling the Iraq war. The next month, it releases thousands of U.S. diplomatic cables, including candid views of foreign leaders and blunt assessments of security threats.

Nov. 18, 2010 - A Swedish court orders Assange's arrest over rape allegations, which he denies. He is arrested in Britain the next month on a European Arrest Warrant but freed on bail.

February 2011 - London's Westminster Magistrates Court orders Assange's extradition to Sweden. He appeals.

June 14, 2012 - The British Supreme Court rejects Assange's final appeal and five days later he takes refuge in Ecuador's embassy in London and seeks political asylum, which Ecuador grants in August 2012.

April 13, 2017 - U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, then CIA chief, describes WikiLeaks as "a non-state hostile intelligence service often abetted by state actors like Russia".

May 19, 2017 - Swedish prosecutors discontinue their investigation, saying it is impossible to proceed while Assange is in the Ecuadorean embassy.

April 11, 2019 - Assange is carried out of the embassy and arrested after Ecuador revokes his political asylum. He is sentenced on May 1 to 50 weeks in prison by a British court for skipping bail. He completes the sentence early but remains jailed pending extradition hearings.

May 13, 2019 - Swedish prosecutors reopen their investigation and say they will seek Assange's extradition to Sweden.

June 11, 2019 - The U.S. Justice Department formally asks Britain to extradite Assange to the United States to face charges that he conspired to hack U.S. government computers and violated an espionage law.

Nov. 19, 2019 - Swedish prosecutors drop their rape investigation, saying the evidence is not strong enough to bring charges, in part because of the passage of time.

Feb. 21, 2020 - A London court begins the first part of extradition hearings which are adjourned after a week. The hearings are supposed to resume in May but are delayed until September because of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Jan. 4, 2021 - Judge Vanessa Baraitser concludes it would be "oppressive" to extradite him to the United States because of his frail mental health, saying there was a real risk he would take his own life.

Reporting by Michael Holden; Editing by Catherine Evans

Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles.

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Timeline: Who is Julian Assange? | Reuters

The First Amendment, Censorship, and Private Companies: What Does Free …

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Updated August 2023:

The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution protects what are commonly known asThe Five Freedoms: freedom of religion, freedom of press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom of petition. The amendment is part of ten amendments to the Constitution known as the Bill of Rights, which was adopted in 1791.The First Amendment Reads:

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.(Source:National Archives)

This amendmentgivesAmericans the right to express themselvesverbally and through publicationwithout government interference. Italsoprevents the government from establishing a state religion, and from favoring one religion over others. And finally,itprotects Americans rights to gather in groups for social, economic, political, or religious purposes; sign petitions; and even file a lawsuit against the government. (Source:History.com)

Freedom of the press and freedom of speech are closely related, and are often the subject of court cases and popular news. Understanding how and when these rights are protected by the First Amendment can help us better understand current events and court decisions.

While the First Amendment acknowledges and protects these rights, there are limitations to how the amendment can be invoked. For instance: people are free to express themselves through publication; however, false or defamatory statements (called libel) are not protected under the First Amendment.

What is Defamation? Defamation occurs if you make a false statement of fact about someone else that harms that persons reputation. Such speech is not protected by the First Amendment and could result in criminal and civil liability. Defamation is limited in multiple respects though.

If you make a false statement of fact about a public official or a public figure, more First Amendment protection applies to ensure that people are not afraid to talk about public issues. According toNew York Times v. Sullivan(1964), defamation against public officials or public figures also requires that the party making the statement used actual malice, meaning the false statement was made with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not.

Parodies and satireare protected by the First Amendment (and are not defamatory). Parodies and satire are meant to humorously poke fun at someone or something, not report believable facts.

(Source: University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee)

The First Amendment also specifically refers to the interference of government in these rights. This ensures that Americans are free to critique the government, but it does not give Americans blanket immunity to say whatever they want, wherever they want, without consequences. Lata Nott, Executive Director of the First Amendment Center, explains:

The First Amendment only protects your speech from government censorship. It applies to federal, state, and local government actors. This is a broad category that includes not only lawmakers and elected officials, but also public schools and universities, courts, and police officers. It does not include private citizens, businesses, and organizations. This means that:

(Source: Freedom Forum Institute)

The U.S. Supreme Court has often been called upon to determine what types of speech are protected under the First Amendment. Since the adoption of the Bill of Rights, hundreds of cases have been seen by the Supreme Court, setting precedence for future cases and refining the definition of speech protected by the First Amendment.

Cox v. New Hampshire Protests and freedom to assemble

Elonis v. U.S. Facebook and free speech

Engel v. Vitale Prayer in schools and freedom of religion

Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier Student newspapers and free speech

Morse v. Frederick School-sponsored events and free speech

Snyder v. Phelps Public concerns, private matters, and free speech

Texas v. Johnson Flag burning and free speech

Tinker v. Des Moines Free speech in schools

U.S. v. Alvarez Lies and free speech

(Source: UScourts.gov)

So what types of speech are protected by the First Amendment? Lets turn to some experts to better understand:

Censorship is the suppression or prohibition of words, images, or ideas that are considered offensive, obscene, politically unacceptable, or a threat to security (Sources: Lexico and ACLU). The First Amendment Encyclopedia notes that censors seek to limit freedom of thought and expression by restricting spoken words, printed matter, symbolic messages, freedom of association, books, art, music, movies, television programs, and internet sites (Source: The First Amendment Encyclopedia).

Censorship by the government is unconstitutional. When the government engages in censorship, it goes against the First Amendment rights discussed above. However, there are still examples of government censorship in our history (see the 1873 Comstock Law and the 1996 Communications Decency Act), and the Supreme Court is often called upon to ensure that First Amendment rights are being protected.

Private individuals and groups still often engage in censorship. As long as government entities are not involved, this type of censorship technically presents no First Amendment implications. Many of us are familiar with the censoring of popular music, movies, and art to exclude words or images that are considered vulgar or obscene. While many of these forms of censorship are technically legal, private groups like the National Coalition Against Censorship (NCAC) and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) work to make sure that the right to free speech is honored.

To learn more about the history of censorship in the United States, and across the world, consider the sources below.

The widespread use of the internet, and particularly social media platforms, has presented new challenges in defining what types speech are protected by the First Amendment. Social Media platforms are private companies, and we learned above that private companies are legally able to establish regulations and guidelines within their communitiesincluding censorship of content or banning of members.

Section 230 of the 1996 Communications Decency Act, states that no provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider.That legal phrase shields companies that can host trillions of messages from being sued into oblivion by anyone who feels wronged by something someone else has posted whether their complaint is legitimate or not.

Politicians on both sides of the aisle have argued, for different reasons, that Twitter, Facebook and other social media platforms have abused that protection and should lose their immunity or at least have to earn it by satisfying requirements set by the government.

Section 230 also allows social platforms to moderate their services by removing posts that, for instance, are obscene or violate the services own standards, so long as they are acting in good faith.(Source: The Free Speech Center at Middle Tennessee State University)

But what happens when politicians use these platforms to communicate with the people they lead? Is it legal for a social media platform to ban a person from using their service? If a politician bans or blocks members from interacting with their content on a social media platform, is it considered a First Amendment violation?

Below are some additional sources discussing how the First Amendment applies to online interactions and social media:

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The First Amendment, Censorship, and Private Companies: What Does Free ...

Obama shortens sentence of Manning, who gave secrets to WikiLeaks

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WASHINGTON (Reuters) - President Barack Obama on Tuesday shortened the prison sentence of Chelsea Manning, the former U.S. military intelligence analyst who was responsible for a 2010 leak of classified materials to anti-secrecy group WikiLeaks, the biggest such breach in U.S. history.

A White House official said there was no connection between Manning's commutation and renewed U.S. government concern about WikiLeaks' actions during last year's presidential election, or a promise by founder Julian Assange to accept extradition if Manning was freed.

Manning has been a focus of a worldwide debate on government secrecy since she provided more than 700,000 documents, videos, diplomatic cables and battlefield accounts to WikiLeaks - a leak for which she was sentenced to serve 35 years in prison.

Obama, in one of his final acts before leaving office, reduced her sentence to seven years, angering some Republicans.

"This is just outrageous," House of Representatives Speaker Paul Ryan said in a statement. Ryan, a Republican, said the decision was a "dangerous precedent" for those who leak materials about national security.

"Chelsea Manning's treachery put American lives at risk and exposed some of our nation's most sensitive secrets," Ryan said.

Manning was working as an intelligence analyst in Baghdad in 2010 when she gave WikiLeaks a trove of diplomatic cables and battlefield accounts that included a 2007 gunsight video of a U.S. Apache helicopter firing at suspected insurgents in Iraq, killing a dozen people including two Reuters news staff.

Republican Senator Tom Cotton said the leak endangered troops, intelligence officers, diplomats and allies.

"We ought not treat a traitor like a martyr," Cotton said.

TOOK RESPONSIBILITY

Manning, formerly known as U.S. Army Private First Class Bradley Manning, was born male but revealed after being convicted of espionage that she identifies as a woman. The White House said her sentence would end on May 17 this year.

Manning, who twice tried to kill herself last year and has struggled to cope as a transgender woman in the Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, men's military prison, accepted responsibility for leaking the material -- a factor that fed into Obama's decision, a White House official told reporters, speaking on condition of anonymity.

The official said Obama's decision was rooted in Manning's sentence being longer than sentences given to others who had committed comparable crimes. Obama, who leaves office on Friday and is scheduled to give his final news conference on Wednesday, is expected to discuss his decision then.

WikiLeaks also published emails in the weeks leading up to the Nov. 8 presidential election that U.S. intelligence agencies have concluded that Russian intelligence agencies hacked the Democratic National Committee and the accounts of leading Democrats, part of a campaign by Moscow to influence the election.

But Obama's decision had nothing to do with the latest WikiLeaks controversy, the White House official said.

"The president's decision to grant clemency and offer commutation to Chelsea Manning was not influenced in any way by public comments from Assange or the WikiLeaks organization," a White House official said on a conference call with reporters.

Assange has been holed up at Ecuador's London embassy since 2012 to avoid extradition to Sweden for the investigation of allegations, which he denies, that he committed rape there in 2010. He has said he fears Sweden would extradite him to the United States, where there is an open criminal investigation into the activities of WikiLeaks.

WikiLeaks sent a tweet quoting Assange's attorney, Melinda Taylor, saying he would abide by his promise to accept extradition if Manning was freed. "Everything that he has said he's standing by," Taylor said, according to the tweet.

Civil rights groups praised the move, calling it overdue.

"Chelsea Manning exposed serious abuses, and as a result her own human rights have been violated by the U.S. government for years," said Margaret Huang, executive director of Amnesty International USA.

STUXNET

Obama also pardoned retired U.S. Marine Corps General James Cartwright who pleaded guilty in October to making false statements to the FBI during an investigation into leaks of classified information.

The aggressive prosecution of Cartwright, who last served as vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, sent shockwaves through the Pentagon.

He lied during questioning by the FBI over a book written by a New York Times reporter that exposed a malicious computer software programme known as "Stuxnet" designed to disrupt Iran's nuclear programme. Cartwright denied being the source of the leak.

Obama weighed Cartwright's service along with his motive when making the decision, the White House official said, noting Cartwright had not divulged material that the journalist was not already aware of, and that his conversations were focussed on preventing the publication of material that could hurt national security.

"It's clear in this case ... that General Cartwright's motive was different than most people who are facing charges of leaking classified information to a journalist," the official said.

PUERTO RICAN MILITANT

Also on the pardon list: Oscar Lopez Rivera, who was sentenced in 1981 to 55 years in prison for his involvement with Puerto Rican militant group FALN, which claimed responsibility for dozens of bombings in the 1970s and 1980s.

Lopez Rivera -- who turned down a similar offer from President Bill Clinton in 1999 -- was the last remaining member of FALN still in prison.

"Mr. Lopez Rivera is now in his 70s. He has served 35 years, nearly half of his life in prison," a White House official said. "The president determined that was sufficient amount of time to serve, although the president certainly believes that the crimes that were committed were serious."

U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders campaigned for the release of Lopez Rivera during his unsuccessful campaign against Hillary Clinton for the Democratic presidential nomination.

Manning and Lopez Rivera were among 209 commutations granted by Obama on Tuesday and Cartwright was among 64 pardons.

In total, Obama has commuted sentences for 1,385 federal prisoners -- a total greater than that of the 12 previous presidents combined -- and he is expected to announce more on Thursday, the White House official said.

Most of the commutations were a part of Obama's effort to reduce the number of people serving long sentences for non-violent drug offences.

additional reporting by Phillip Stewart, Patricia Zengerle and Dustin Volz

Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles.

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Obama shortens sentence of Manning, who gave secrets to WikiLeaks

Julian Assange is one major step closer to extradition to the U.S.

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Wikileaks founder Julian Assange supporters hold placards as they gather outside Westminster Magistrates court in London on Wednesday. Alastair Grant/AP hide caption

Wikileaks founder Julian Assange supporters hold placards as they gather outside Westminster Magistrates court in London on Wednesday.

LONDON A British judge on Wednesday formally approved the extradition of Julian Assange to the United States to face spying charges. The case will now go to Britain's interior minister for a decision, though the WikiLeaks founder still has legal avenues of appeal.

The order, which brings and end to the years'-long extradition battle closer, comes after the U.K. Supreme Court last month refused Assange permission to appeal against a lower court's ruling that he could be extradited.

District Judge Paul Goldspring issued the order in a brief hearing at Westminster Magistrates' Court, as Assange watched by video link from Belmarsh Prison and his supporters rallied outside the courthouse, demanding he be freed.

Home Secretary Priti Patel will now decide whether to grant the extradition.

The move doesn't exhaust the legal options for Assange, who has sought for years to avoid a trial in the U.S. on charges related to WikiLeaks' publication of a huge trove of classified documents more than a decade ago.

His lawyers have four weeks to make submissions to Patel, and can also seek to appeal to the High Court.

Assange lawyer Mark Summers told the court that the legal team had "serious submissions" to make.

The U.S. has asked British authorities to extradite Assange so he can stand trial on 17 charges of espionage and one charge of computer misuse. American prosecutors say Assange unlawfully helped U.S. Army intelligence analyst Chelsea Manning steal classified diplomatic cables and military files that WikiLeaks later published, putting lives at risk.

Supporters and lawyers for Assange, 50, argue that he was acting as a journalist and is entitled to First Amendment protections of freedom of speech for publishing documents that exposed U.S. military wrongdoing in Iraq and Afghanistan. They argue that his case is politically motivated.

A British district court judge had initially rejected a U.S. extradition request on the grounds that Assange was likely to kill himself if held under harsh U.S. prison conditions. U.S. authorities later provided assurances that the WikiLeaks founder wouldn't face the severe treatment that his lawyers said would put his physical and mental health at risk.

In December, the High Court overturned the lower court's decision, saying that the U.S. promises were enough to guarantee that Assange would be treated humanely. The Supreme Court in March rejected Assange's attempt to challenge that ruling.

Assange's lawyers say he could face up to 175 years in jail if he is convicted in the U.S., though American authorities have said the sentence was likely to be much lower than that.

Assange has been held at Britain's high-security Belmarsh Prison in London since 2019, when he was arrested for skipping bail during a separate legal battle. Before that, he spent seven years inside the Ecuadorian Embassy in London to avoid extradition to Sweden to face allegations of rape and sexual assault.

Sweden dropped the sex crimes investigations in November 2019 because so much time had elapsed.

Last month, Assange and his partner Stella Moris married in a prison ceremony.

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Julian Assange is one major step closer to extradition to the U.S.