The discovery could be a hint of life, a biomarker, on a planet known for its hellish environment and volcanic surface. While a great deal of research will have to be conducted before anything can be confirmed, the announcement has come as an added bonus for the many missions that could explore one of Earths closest planetary neighbours in the near future.

But first, a look at the missions that have tried something similar in the past. Every country and agency, from the European Space Agency to those of the erstwhile Soviet Union and the US, has sent missions to Venus over the last few decadesthere have been more than 40 such missions. In 1962, US space agency Nasas deep space probe Mariner 2 became the first spacecraft to conduct a successful planetary flyby. It also sent back temperature readings and other information about Venus.

The Soviet Unions Venera programme saw a series of unmanned planetary probes to Venus being launched between 1961-84. While some of these probes never made it past Earths orbit, others crash-landed on Venus, like the Venera 3. Other missions analysed the chemical composition of the planets upper atmosphere. Venera 9 and 10 sent back the first black and white images of Venus surface in 1975; Venera 13 was the first lander to transmit colour images in 1982.

The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agencys (Jaxas) Akatsuki, launched in 2010, is currently orbiting the planet. It studies weather patterns and signs of active volcanism on the planet through high-speed imagery, radio science and camera instruments.

Everything we learn about the atmosphere of Venus, and the chemical cycles there, broadens our knowledge of how Earth-like planets in the universe evolve, and how other planets have diverged from Earths path. Thus, if we really want to deeply understand climate change, geological history and the nature of planets in general, we need to understand how we should interpret these findings," says David Grinspoon, a senior scientist at the Planetary Science Institute, a US-based non-profit that focuses on planetary science and exploration of the solar system. Grinspoon, who studies surface-atmospheric interactions on terrestrial planets, atmospheric evolution and habitability, says the discovery of phosphine offers additional impetus for more missions to the planet and seek answers to some fundamental questions. We already had a lot of important reasons to further explore Venus. But now we have even more reason to go," he adds on email.

One proposed mission is Indias Shukrayaan-1an Indian Space Research Organisation orbiter that will aim to study the planets surface and atmosphere. It has a tentative launch date of 2023, which could be extended to 2025, and will carry science instruments from India and other countries. One such instrument could come from the Swedish Institute of Space Physics, which announced in July that its Venusian Neutrals Analyzer (or VNA), which would be aboard Shukrayaan-1, would study how charged particles from the sun interact with the atmosphere and exosphere of the planet.

Nasas VERITAS (short for Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography, and Spectroscopy) mission is under consideration for its Discovery programme, a series of missions to explore the Solar System that has been running since 1992. According to an official statement, the VERITAS spacecraft, proposed for a 2026 launch, would orbit Venus and peer through the planets obscuring clouds with the help of a powerful radar system to create 3D global maps and a near-infrared spectrometer to figure out what the surface is made of. It would also measure the planets gravitational field to determine the structure of Venus interior. Together, the instruments would offer clues about the planets past and present geologic processes, from its core to its surface," the release explains. The last mission that studied Venus surface was Magellan, which ended in 1994.

Like VERITAS, the DAVINCI+ (Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble gases, Chemistry, and Imaging Plus) mission is another candidate for studying the planets atmosphere and trying to decode whether Venus ever had an ocean.

Studying our sister planet" is one of the most important topics in modern-day comparative planetology but any future missions will not be without significant challenges, says Siddharth Pandey, head of the Centre of Excellence in Astrobiology, Amity University, Mumbai. You need high-temperature electronics because when you are moving towards the sun, the energy levels are quite high. All the probes that normally go towards the suneither Mercury or Venusthey tend to have very strong thermal protection systems, which take up a lot of space inside a spacecraft," says Pandey. For anything that is going towards Venus, it will need a similar kind of thermal insulation as well as electronics, systems like cameras, communication units that can operate in that high-energy environment," he adds.

While the surface environment of Venus is extremely hot, dry and harsh, the clouds are made of concentrated sulphuric acid. So any vehicle we send there has to be made to withstand the acid environment," explains Grinspoon, describing the announcement on phosphine as an exciting development". It needs to be confirmed with follow-up observations," he adds. But if it is really phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus, then it is telling us something we dont know about the processes occurring in the atmosphere. Even if it is not a sign of biology, we stand to learn something from this, and it will be important to sort it out since we are hoping to use similar observations to test for the presence of life on exoplanets around other stars."

*****

Phosphine Fact-Sheet

What is this molecule?

Phosphine is a colourless, toxic gas made of phosphorous and hydrogen.

What makes the discovery so interesting?

On Earth, phosphine is generated through natural processeslightning and volcanic activitybut only in small amounts. The only known processes that produce phosphine on Earth in similar quantities are biological in origin. The amount of phosphine detected in the Venusian clouds is relatively large.

Whats next?

To understand whether this is happening biologically through the possible presence of micro-organismsby taking measurements in the planets atmosphere and potentially bringing back samples to Earth for further analysis.

Source: Royal Astronomical Society

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Why future missions to Venus will not be as easy as they look - Mint

NASA's Mars 2020 Perseverance rover mission is on its way to the Red Planet to search for signs of ancient life and collect samples to send back to Earth.

Humanity's most sophisticated rover launched with theIngenuity Mars Helicopterat 7:50 a.m. EDT (4:50 a.m. PDT) Thursdayon a United Launch Alliance (ULA) Atlas V rocket from Space Launch Complex 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida.

The ULA Atlas V's Centaur upper stage initially placed the Mars 2020 spacecraft into a parking orbit around Earth. The engine fired for a second time and the spacecraft separated from the Centaur as expected. Navigation data indicate the spacecraft is perfectly on course to Mars.

Right now, the Mars 2020 mission is completing a full health assessment on the spacecraft and is working to return the spacecraft to a nominal configuration for its journey to Mars.

The Perseverance rover'sastrobiologymission is to seek out signs of past microscopic life on Mars, explore the diverse geology of its landing site,Jezero Crater, and demonstrate key technologies that will help us prepare for future robotic and human exploration.

The Martian rock and dust PerseverancesSample Caching Systemcollects could answer fundamental questions about the potential for life to exist beyond Earth. Two future missions currently under consideration by NASA, in collaboration with ESA (European Space Agency), will work together to get the samples to an orbiter for return to Earth. When they arrive on Earth, the Mars samples will undergo in-depth analysis by scientists around the world using equipment far too large to send to the Red Planet.

JPL, which is managed for NASA by Caltech in Pasadena, California, built and will manage operations of the Mars Perseverance rover. NASA's Launch Services Program, based at the agency's Kennedy Space Center in Florida, is responsible for launch management, and ULA provided the Atlas V rocket.The mission to Mars in 2020 will send the Mars Rover up to look for natural resources, inspect for hazards and investigate generable habitability of the planet in preparation for future human expeditions. The Rover will be equipped with advanced instruments including the SuperCam, which uses remote optical measurements and laser spectroscopy to examine the composition of samples taken on Mars.

OptoSigma Europe SASis contributing to the development of SuperCam, a remote sensing instrument for the NASA Mars 2020 mission to the red planet. Among other suppliers, OptoSigma has been selected to provide different optical elements, such as advanced beamsplitters for selecting specific wavelength ranges and directing them to the different sensors of the instrument.

The SuperCam is the result of a cooperation between teams led by the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL, New Mexico, US) and the Astrophysics and Planetology Research Institute (IRAP, Toulouse, France). IRAP and a consortium of six French laboratories will supply an optical and electronic unit plus spectrographs, to be mounted at the top of the rover mast. The Mars 2020 rover will be launched in July 2020 and will land 7 months later. Surface operations are scheduled to last until August 2023.

The instrument will use remote optical measurements and laser spectroscopy to determine fine-scale mineralogy, chemistry, and atomic and molecular composition of samples encountered on Mars. To enable these measurements, SuperCam is, in fact, many instruments in one.

For probing elemental composition, it integrates the remote Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) capabilities of the highly successful ChemCam instrument included in the payload of the Curiosity rover currently exploring Mars. LIBS uses a 1064-nm laser to investigate targets up to 7 m distance from the rover.

SuperCam in addition performs Raman spectroscopy at 532 nm to investigate targets up to 12 m distance from the rover, Time-Resolved Fluorescence (TRF) spectroscopy, Visible and InfraRed (VISIR) reflectance spectroscopy (400 900 nm and 1.3 2.6 m) to provide information about the mineralogy and molecular structure of probes from rocks on Mars. It will also be able to search directly for organic materials.

Further, SuperCam can acquire high-resolution images of samples with a remote color micro-imager (RMI). Measurements can be rapidly obtained without the need to position the rover or rover arm on a target. As demonstrated by ChemCam, the SuperCam laser can be used to blast off dust from surfaces at a distance enabling a better look at solid surfaces on Mars, without having to drive up to samples and perform manipulations with the rover arm or associated tools.

About seven cold, dark, unforgiving months of interplanetary space travel lay ahead for the mission a fact never far from the mind of Mars 2020 project team.

"There is still a lot of road between us and Mars," said John McNamee, Mars 2020 project manager at JPL. "About 290 million miles of them. But if there was ever a team that could make it happen, it is this one. We are going to Jezero Crater. We will see you there Feb. 18, 2021."

The Mars 2020 Perseverance mission is part of America's larger Moon to Mars exploration approach that includes missions to the Moon as a way to prepare for human exploration of the Red Planet. Charged with sending the first woman and next man to the Moon by 2024, NASA will establish a sustained human presence on and around the Moon by 2028 through NASA'sArtemis program.

See more here:

Mars Perseverance Mission Launches with Sophisticated SuperCam On Board - Novus Light Technologies Today

The international journal Earth-Science Reviews published a paper offering an overview of the lava tubes (pyroducts) on Earth, eventually providing an estimate of the (greater) size of their lunar and Martian counterparts.

This study involved the Universities of Bologna and Padua and its coordinators are Francesco Sauro and Riccardo Pozzobon. Francesco Sauro is a speleologist and head of the ESA programs CAVES and PANGAEA, he is also a professor at the Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences at the University of Bologna. Riccardo Pozzobon is a planetary geologist at the Department of Geosciences of the University of Padua.

We can find lava tubes on planet Earth, but also on the subsurface of the Moon and Mars according to the high-resolution pictures of lava tubes skylights taken by interplanetary probes. Evidence of lava tubes was often inferred by observing linear cavities and sinuous collapse chains where the galleries cracked, explains Francesco Sauro. These collapse chains represent ideal gateways or windows for subsurface exploration. The morphological surface expression of lava tubes on Mars and the Moon is similar to their terrestrial counterpart. Speleologists thoroughly studied lava tubes on Earth in Hawaii, Canary Islands, Australia, and Iceland.

The morphological surface expression of lava tubes on Mars and the Moon is similar to their terrestrial counterpart. Credit: ESA / Luca Ricci

We measured the size and gathered the morphology of lunar and Martian collapse chains (collapsed lava tubes), using digital terrain models (DTMs), which we obtained through satellite stereoscopic images and laser altimetry taken by interplanetary probes, reminds Riccardo Pozzobon. We then compared these data to topographic studies about similar collapse chains on the Earths surface and to laser scans of the inside of lava tubes in Lanzarote and the Galapagos. These data allowed to establish a restriction to the relationship between collapse chains and subsurface cavities that are still intact.

Researchers found that Martian and lunar tubes are respectively 100 and 1,000 times wider than those on Earth, which typically have a diameter of 10 to 30 meters. Lower gravity and its effect on volcanism explain these outstanding dimensions (with total volumes exceeding 1 billion cubic meters on the Moon).

Riccardo Pozzobon adds: Tubes as wide as these can be longer than 40 kilometers, making the Moon an extraordinary target for subsurface exploration and potential settlement in the wide protected and stable environments of lava tubes. The latter are so big they can contain Paduas entire city center.

What is most important is that, despite the impressive dimension of the lunar tubes, they remain well within the roof stability threshold because of a lower gravitational attraction, explains Matteo Massironi, who is professor of Structural and Planetary Geology at the Department of Geosciences of the University of Padua. This means that the majority of lava tubes underneath the maria smooth plains are intact. The collapse chains we observed might have been caused by asteroids piercing the tube walls. This is what the collapse chains in Marius Hills seem to suggest. From the latter, we can get access to these huge underground cavities.

Francesco Sauro concludes: Lava tubes could provide stable shields from cosmic and solar radiation and micrometeorite impacts which are often happening on the surfaces of planetary bodies. Moreover, they have great potential for providing an environment in which temperatures do not vary from day- to night-time. Space agencies are now interested in planetary caves and lava tubes, as they represent a first step towards future explorations of the lunar surface (see also NASAs project Artemis) and towards finding life (past or present) in Mars subsurface.

Researchers also point out how this study opens up to a completely new perspective in planetary exploration, which is increasingly focusing on the subsurface of Mars and the Moon.

In autumn 2019, ESA called up universities and industries with a campaign seeking ideas for developing technologies for lunar caves exploration. They are specifically looking for systems that would land on the lunar surface to operate missions exploring lunar tubes, clarifies Unibo professor Jo De Waele, who is one of the authors of the study and a speleologist. Since 2012, in collaboration with some European universities including Bologna and Padua, ESA has been carrying out two training programs for astronauts focusing on the exploration of underground systems (CAVES) and planetary geology (PANGAEA). These programs include lava tubes on the island of Lanzarote. So far, 36 astronauts from five space agencies have received training in cave hiking; moreover, six astronauts and four mission and operation specialists have received geological field training.

###

Reference: Lava tubes on Earth, Moon and Mars: A review on their size and morphology revealed by comparative planetology by Francesco Sauro, Riccardo Pozzobon,Matteo Massironi, Pierluigi De Berardinis, Tommaso Santagata and Jo De Waele, 20 July 2020, Earth-Science Reviews.DOI: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103288

The title of this study is Lava tubes on Earth, Moon and Mars: A review on their size and morphology revealed by comparative planetology and it was published in the journal Earth-Science Reviews. The authors are: Francesco Sauro, Jo De Waele and Pierluigi De Berardinis (Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences of the University of Bologna); Riccardo Pozzobon and Matteo Massironi (Department of Geosciences of the University of Padua); Tommaso Santagata (VIGEA Virtual Geographic Agency in Reggio Emilia).

See the rest here:

Lava Tubes on Mars and the Moon May Be Suitable for Planetary Bases Up to 1,000 Times Wider Than Those on Earth - SciTechDaily

Vast lava tubes beneath the surface of Mars and the Moon could be large enough to host bases for visiting astronauts, scientists have said.

New research examined the similar tubes that can be found on Earth, and used them to estimate the size of similar but much bigger tunnels that are thought to exist underneath the surface of other worlds.

Living inside such tubes, beneath the surface, could theoretically provide some protection for the astronauts who are expected to visit other parts of the solar system in coming years.

Sharing the full story, not just the headlines

On the Moon, the tubes are thought to be 1,000 times wider than those on Earth, where they already can be span around 30 meters across. The extra size is explained in large part by the lower gravity found on those worlds.

Despite their vast size, the tubes are still thought to be stable enough to serve as a home. The lower gravity also means that the forces that might collapse the tubes on Earth would not pull them down on the Moon or Mars, scientists said.

As part of the research, scientists from the European Space Agency as well as the universities of Bologna and Padua explored examples of such caves on Earth, where they can be found in Hawaii, the Canary Islands, Australia and Iceland.

They also measured the size of collapsed tubes on the Moon and Mars, using images and other data taken from visiting probes. They then compared that data with information about collapsed chains on the Earth's surface, allowing them to understand the relationship between those tubes that collapse and others that stay stable.

They found that the conditions on other worlds would allow them to grow much bigger before they fall in.

"Tubes as wide as these can be longer than 40 kilometres, making the Moon an extraordinary target for subsurface exploration and potential settlement in the wide protected and stable environments of lava tubes," said Riccardo Pozzobon, one of the researchers on the paper, and a scientist at the University of Padua. "The latter are so big they can contain Padua's entire city centre".

Such tubes on other worlds could form a key part of plans to go and stay on the Moon and Mars, where conditions would be much more dangerous than they are on Earth.

Mystic Mountain, a pillar of gas and dust standing at three-light-years tall, bursting with jets of gas from fledgling stars buried within, was captured by Nasa's Hubble Space Telescope in February 2010

Nasa/ESA/STScI

The first ever selfie taken on an alien planet, captured by Nasa's Curiosity Rover in the early days of its mission to explore Mars in 2012

Nasa/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

Death of a star: This image from Nasa's Chandra X-ray telescope shows the supernova of Tycho, a star in our Milky Way galaxy

Nasa

Arrokoth, the most distant object ever explored, pictured here on 1 January 2019 by a camera on Nasa's New Horizons spaceraft at a distance of 4.1 billion miles from Earth

Getty

An image of the Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy seen in infrared light by the Herschel Space Observatory in January 2012. Regions of space such as this are where new stars are born from a mixture of elements and cosmic dust

Nasa

The first ever image of a black hole, captured by the Event Horizon telescope, as part of a global collaboration involving Nasa, and released on 10 April 2019. The image reveals the black hole at the centre of Messier 87, a massive galaxy in the nearby Virgo galaxy cluster. This black hole resides about 54 million light-years from Earth

Getty

Pluto, as pictured by Nasa's New Horizons spacecraft as it flew over the dwarf planet for the first time ever in July 2015

Nasa/APL/SwRI

A coronal mass ejection as seen by the Chandra Observatory in 2019. This is the first time that Chandra has detected this phenomenon from a star other than the Sun

Nasa

Dark, narrow, 100 meter-long streaks running downhill on the surface Mars were believed to be evidence of contemporary flowing water. It has since been suggested that they may instead be formed by flowing sand

Nasa/JPL/University of Arizona

Morning Aurora: Nasa astronaut Scott Kelly captured this photograph of the green lights of the aurora from the International Space Station in October 2015

Nasa/Scott Kelly

Mystic Mountain, a pillar of gas and dust standing at three-light-years tall, bursting with jets of gas from fledgling stars buried within, was captured by Nasa's Hubble Space Telescope in February 2010

Nasa/ESA/STScI

The first ever selfie taken on an alien planet, captured by Nasa's Curiosity Rover in the early days of its mission to explore Mars in 2012

Nasa/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

Death of a star: This image from Nasa's Chandra X-ray telescope shows the supernova of Tycho, a star in our Milky Way galaxy

Nasa

Arrokoth, the most distant object ever explored, pictured here on 1 January 2019 by a camera on Nasa's New Horizons spaceraft at a distance of 4.1 billion miles from Earth

Getty

An image of the Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy seen in infrared light by the Herschel Space Observatory in January 2012. Regions of space such as this are where new stars are born from a mixture of elements and cosmic dust

Nasa

The first ever image of a black hole, captured by the Event Horizon telescope, as part of a global collaboration involving Nasa, and released on 10 April 2019. The image reveals the black hole at the centre of Messier 87, a massive galaxy in the nearby Virgo galaxy cluster. This black hole resides about 54 million light-years from Earth

Getty

Pluto, as pictured by Nasa's New Horizons spacecraft as it flew over the dwarf planet for the first time ever in July 2015

Nasa/APL/SwRI

A coronal mass ejection as seen by the Chandra Observatory in 2019. This is the first time that Chandra has detected this phenomenon from a star other than the Sun

Nasa

Dark, narrow, 100 meter-long streaks running downhill on the surface Mars were believed to be evidence of contemporary flowing water. It has since been suggested that they may instead be formed by flowing sand

Nasa/JPL/University of Arizona

Morning Aurora: Nasa astronaut Scott Kelly captured this photograph of the green lights of the aurora from the International Space Station in October 2015

Nasa/Scott Kelly

"Lava tubes could provide stable shields from cosmic and solar radiation and micrometeorite impacts which are often happening on the surfaces of planetary bodies," said Francesco Sauro, on of the authors of the new paper, who works on European Space Agency programmes.

"Moreover, they have great potential for providing an environment in which temperatures do not vary from day- to night-time. Space agencies are now interested in planetary caves and lava tubes, as they represent a first step towards future explorations of the lunar surface (see also NASA's project Artemis) and towards finding life (past or present) in Mars subsurface".

A paper discussing the findings, titled 'Lava tubes on Earth, Moon and Mars: A review on their size and morphology revealed by comparative planetology', is published in Earth-Science Reviews.

More:

Mars and the Moon have lava tubes so big they could host astronaut bases, scientists say - The Independent

Researchers from Kobe University and the National Institute of Technology, Oshima College have conducted a detailed reanalysis of image data from Voyager 1, 2 and Galileo spacecraft in order to investigate the orientation and distribution of the ancient tectonic troughs found on Jupiters moon Ganymede.

They discovered that these troughs are concentrically distributed across almost the entire surface of the satellite. This global distribution indicates that these troughs may be actually part of one giant crater covering Ganymede.

Based on the results of a computer simulation conducted using the PC Cluster at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ), it is speculated that this giant crater could have resulted from the impact of an asteroid with a radius of 150km. If so, the structure is the largest impact structure identified in the solar system so far.

The European Space Agencys JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer) mission, which will be launched in 2022 and arrive in Jupiters system in 2029, aims to increase our knowledge regarding Jupiters satellites, including Ganymede. It is hoped that this exploration will confirm the results of this study and further advance our understanding of the formation and evolution of Jupiters satellites.

The research team consisted of Kobe University Graduate School of Sciences Assistant Professor HIRATA Naoyuki and Professor OHTSUKI Keiji (both of the Department of Planetology), and Associate Professor SUETSUGU Ryo of National Institute of Technology, Oshima College.

Images of Ganymedes surface taken by Voyager 2 (left) and Galileo (right). The Dark Terrain and Bright Terrain areas can be recognized, with concurrent furrows present in these Dark Terrains. (Image credit: NASA)

Main Points

Research Background

Both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 have closely approached Ganymede in 1979 and 1980 respectively, taking detailed images of the surface. In addition, the Galileo spacecraft orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003, obtaining a large amount of Ganymede image data. Ganymede is the largest satellite in the solar system and is bigger than both Pluto and Mercury.

The formation and evolution of Jupiters moons including Ganymede is strongly connected to the formation and evolution of the Jupiter system, and by extension, of the solar system. Consequently, there are various ongoing and planned spacecraft missions to explore the satellite system, including NASAs JUNO mission that is ongoing, the Europa Clipper scheduled to perform a detailed investigation of Jupiters moon Europa in around 2030, and the aforementioned JUICE mission.

The study was conducted with the aims of clarifying one aspect of the formation and evolution of Jupiters satellites and of contributing towards these spacecraft missions. The group reanalyzed image data of Ganymede. In particular, the researchers focused on furrows (Figure 1), tectonic troughs that are believed to be the oldest surface features on the satellite. Therefore, the research group hypothesized that they could reconstruct the early history of Ganymede by analyzing these geological formations.

Research Findings

Ganymedes surface is categorized into areas of Dark Terrain and Bright Terrain. Dark Terrain is extremely old and has many remaining craters, as well as trough formations (Figure 1). Bright Terrain is comparatively recent, with hardly any craters. These two types of terrain are not coherently arranged and are randomly distributed over Ganymedes entirety. Furrows are believed to be Ganymedes oldest geological features because they are only found on Dark Terrain and many impact craters (*1) have been formed on top of them later on.

This study reanalyzed the distribution of these trough formations over Ganymedes entire surface, revealing for the first time that almost all of these furrows are concentrically aligned around a single point (Figure 2). The study showed that these furrows form giant, concentric rings over the entire satellite. From this, it can be assumed that there was a giant multiring impact crater which covered the entire surface of Ganymede before the formation of the Bright Terrain areas.

A similar ring structure known as the Valhalla Crater remains on the surface of Callisto, another satellite of Jupiter. Until now, the Valhalla Crater has been the largest identified multiring crater in the solar system, with a radius of approximately 1900km. However, the multiring crater on Ganymede has a radial extent of 7800km measured along the satellites surface.

The research team conducted a simulation to estimate the scale of the impact that formed this giant crater. This was carried out using the PC Cluster at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ). The results indicated that an asteroid with a radius of 150km impacting Ganymede at a speed of 20km/s would be sufficient to form the observed structures on the satellites surface (Figure 3). It is believed that such an impact occurred around 40 billion years ago.

Further Developments

The discovery that the aftermath of a large-scale impact remains on Ganymedes surface is greatly significant in terms of the satellites formation process and evolution. For example, Jupiters satellite Callisto is around the same size as Ganymede, however it is believed that it doesnt have an internal structure composed of differentiated layers. On the other hand, Ganymede is thought to be composed of a differentiated layer structure consisting of rock, iron and ice. An enormous amount of heat is necessary to form these differentiated layers. It is possible that the aforementioned large-scale impact could have been the source of this heat.

This studys discovery will also have substantial significance for the Ganymede exploration programs scheduled in the coming decades. The image data from both Voyager and Galileo missions only provide partial views of the satellites surface. It is hoped that future explorations will be able to confirm or test this studys results by conducting detailed investigations into the multiring formations and whether or not there are any other remains of large-scale impacts. Hopefully, this will result in a deeper understanding of the origins and evolution of Ganymede as well as Jupiters other moons.

Kobe University

Header Image Credit : Public Domain

Continue reading here:

Ring-like Structure on Ganymede May Have Been Caused by a Violent Impact - HeritageDaily

TLDR: The SEO and Social Media Ads Certification Bundle explains how to market, grow audiences, and convert sales in the online world.

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Read next: Theres no workplace equity for women in STEM and COVID-19 made it worse

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Learn the SEO and social media tactics to build a truly thriving online business - The Next Web

Pallasites are stony-iron meteorites, and are known for their unusual, visually attractive structures. However, to date, their origins have been hotly disputed.

Researchers at the Bavarian Research Institute of Experimental Geochemistry & Geophysics (BGI) of the University of Bayreuth have now succeeded in simulating the formation of all known types of pallasites by means of high-pressure experiments, and in placing them in the history of the solar system. They have been working closely with scientists from the Technical University of Munich and the Royal Holloway University of London. The new findings are presented in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters.

As the researchers have now discovered, pallasites arose from asteroid collisions that occurred approximately 4.5 billion years ago. In these collisions, iron from the smaller asteroid mixed with the olivine-rich material in the mantle of the larger asteroid. Billions of years later, quantities of this material mixture were blasted out of the surface of the asteroid by the force of another impact, and catapulted into space. Some of them finally hit the Earth. This genesis explains the unusual structures found in pallasites: They contain greenish brown olivine crystals surrounded by nickel and iron metal.

In research, the spatial arrangement of different materials in a rock and the resulting structures make up what is called texture. The pallasites that have been found and studied on Earth so far show a very large variety of textures. With our research work, we were able for the first time to reproduce in the laboratory all of the textures observed in pallasites.

This shows in an exemplary way how these meteorites can provide us revealing and unexpected insights into the early history of our solar system. To this end, we wish to continue our structural and chemical investigations of pallasite meteorites at BGI especially in the geochemical laboratories soon to be established here, says Prof. Dr. Audrey Bouvier, Professor of Experimental Planetology at the University of Bayreuth.

The new findings are the result of experiments on two extremely powerful devices: the MAVO high-pressure press at the Bavarian Research Institute of Experimental Geochemistry & Geophysics, and the identical SAPHiR high-pressure press. This is currently being set up with the assistance of Prof. Dr. Hans Keppler from BGI at Forschungs-Neutronenquelle Heinz Maier-Leibnitz (Research Neutron Source Heinz Maier-Leibnitz) at the Technical University of Munich.

With these instruments we can simulate very realistically the processes that led to the formation of meteorites, asteroids, or the planets. In order to be able to explain the formation of pallasites by asteroid collisions, we imitated the pressure and temperature conditions prevailing during these processes. Thus, we subjected samples containing iron and olivine to a pressure of one gigapascal (GPa) at 1,300 degrees Celsius. We then compared the changes in shape and internal stresses that we observed in the experimental samples with the textures found in the pallasite meteorites, explains Danielle Silva Souza, a Masters student from Bayreuth. After her bachelors degree in geosciences at the Federal University of Ouro Preto in Brazil, she came to Upper Franconia to work on experimental geoscience projects, which included the geochemical and experimental research project on pallasites. BGI offers excellent conditions for this research work, says the up-and-coming Bayreuth researcher.

University of Bayreuth

Header Image Texture of a pallasite: The brown and golden-brown areas contain olivines which are embedded in iron-nickel metal. Width: 3.5 cm. Image Credit : Audrey Bouvier

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Researchers Explain the Origins of Stony-Iron Meteorites - HeritageDaily

Across the lansdcape, steam vents hiss gaseous breath from deep inside the planet, creating an environment that feels like it hangs in the balance between our world and another. Stefanie Payne, A Year in the National Parks: The Greatest American Road Trip

The team designed models of geological activity beneath the surface of Venus. These 3D models of showed the formation of coronae formation identified features that could only be produced by recent volcanic activity on the surface of Venus. This finding provides the first evidence that the surface of Venus is still active, betraying active geology beneath the crust.

I focus on the lithosphere and surface geology, which is relatively accessible to planetary missions data. I like to call this kind of work comparative planetology. Venus is of special interest because of its gross similarity to the Earth. Yet the geology we observe is very different from that of the Earth. It has volcanoes and faults, yes, but they are organized very differently from the Earth. It does not have global tectonics like we do (at least at present day), Montsi tells The Cosmic Companion.

Without plate tectonics, movement of hot material through the planetary surface is the dominant force driving geological change on Venus today.

In the video above, you can take look at the planned EnVision mission to Venus, scheduled for launch in 2032. (Video credit: Thomas Widemann)

The surface of Venus was likely reworked on a large scale by volcanoes between 500 and 300 million years ago. Eruptions there have some similarities, as well as some differences to geological activity here on Earth.

Volcanoes on Venus actually look a lot like those on Earth: they have similar slope, activity on the summit etc. However, there are many regions of Venus that are covered with lava flows without necessarily a clear source. We see that in a few places on Earth, in regions called flood basalt provinces or traps. In our study we focused on very unusual structures called coronae, which do not have a good equivalent in terrestrial geology. They have a ring of faults and lava flow, and their interior can be quite complex, maybe have volcanic edifices, but these are not very well documented yet, Montsi describes.

This finding could assist teams heading future missions to Venus, including Europes EnVision mission, scheduled for launch in 2032.

This article was originally published on The Cosmic Companion by James Maynard, founder and publisher of The Cosmic Companion. He is a New England native turned desert rat in Tucson, where he lives with his lovely wife, Nicole, and Max the Cat. You can read this original piece here.

Astronomy News with The Cosmic Companion is also available as a weekly podcast, carried on all major podcast providers. Tune in every Tuesday for updates on the latest astronomy news, and interviews with astronomers and other researchers working to uncover the nature of the Universe.

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New 3D model reveals Venus' volcanoes are actually still active - TNW

Science of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around one or more stellar objects within a few light years

Planetary science or, more rarely, planetology, is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes that form them. It studies objects ranging in size from micrometeoroids to gas giants, aiming to determine their composition, dynamics, formation, interrelations and history. It is a strongly interdisciplinary field, originally growing from astronomy and earth science,[1] but which now incorporates many disciplines, including planetary geology (together with geochemistry and geophysics), cosmochemistry, atmospheric science, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetary science, glaciology, and exoplanetology.[1] Allied disciplines include space physics, when concerned with the effects of the Sun on the bodies of the Solar System, and astrobiology.

There are interrelated observational and theoretical branches of planetary science. Observational research can involve a combination of space exploration, predominantly with robotic spacecraft missions using remote sensing, and comparative, experimental work in Earth-based laboratories. The theoretical component involves considerable computer simulation and mathematical modelling.

Planetary scientists are generally located in the astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments of universities or research centres, though there are several purely planetary science institutes worldwide. There are several major conferences each year, and a wide range of peer-reviewed journals. Some planetary scientists work at private research centres and often initiate partnership research tasks.

The history of planetary science may be said to have begun with the Ancient Greek philosopher Democritus, who is reported by Hippolytus as saying

The ordered worlds are boundless and differ in size, and that in some there is neither sun nor moon, but that in others, both are greater than with us, and yet with others more in number. And that the intervals between the ordered worlds are unequal, here more and there less, and that some increase, others flourish and others decay, and here they come into being and there they are eclipsed. But that they are destroyed by colliding with one another. And that some ordered worlds are bare of animals and plants and all water.[2]

In more modern times, planetary science began in astronomy, from studies of the unresolved planets. In this sense, the original planetary astronomer would be Galileo, who discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter, the mountains on the Moon, and first observed the rings of Saturn, all objects of intense later study. Galileo's study of the lunar mountains in 1609 also began the study of extraterrestrial landscapes: his observation "that the Moon certainly does not possess a smooth and polished surface" suggested that it and other worlds might appear "just like the face of the Earth itself".[3]

Advances in telescope construction and instrumental resolution gradually allowed increased identification of the atmospheric and surface details of the planets. The Moon was initially the most heavily studied, as it always exhibited details on its surface, due to its proximity to the Earth, and the technological improvements gradually produced more detailed lunar geological knowledge. In this scientific process, the main instruments were astronomical optical telescopes (and later radio telescopes) and finally robotic exploratory spacecraft.

The Solar System has now been relatively well-studied, and a good overall understanding of the formation and evolution of this planetary system exists. However, there are large numbers of unsolved questions,[4] and the rate of new discoveries is very high, partly due to the large number of interplanetary spacecraft currently exploring the Solar System.

Planetary science studies observational and theoretical astronomy, geology (exogeology), atmospheric science, and an emerging subspecialty in planetary oceans.[5]

This is both an observational and a theoretical science. Observational researchers are predominantly concerned with the study of the small bodies of the Solar System: those that are observed by telescopes, both optical and radio, so that characteristics of these bodies such as shape, spin, surface materials and weathering are determined, and the history of their formation and evolution can be understood.

Theoretical planetary astronomy is concerned with dynamics: the application of the principles of celestial mechanics to the Solar System and extrasolar planetary systems. Every planet has its own subject.

Planet: Subject: Named after (NB: these terms are rarely used)

The best known research topics of planetary geology deal with the planetary bodies in the near vicinity of the Earth: the Moon, and the two neighbouring planets: Venus and Mars. Of these, the Moon was studied first, using methods developed earlier on the Earth.

Geomorphology studies the features on planetary surfaces and reconstructs the history of their formation, inferring the physical processes that acted on the surface. Planetary geomorphology includes the study of several classes of surface features:

The history of a planetary surface can be deciphered by mapping features from top to bottom according to their deposition sequence, as first determined on terrestrial strata by Nicolas Steno. For example, stratigraphic mapping prepared the Apollo astronauts for the field geology they would encounter on their lunar missions. Overlapping sequences were identified on images taken by the Lunar Orbiter program, and these were used to prepare a lunar stratigraphic column and geological map of the Moon.

One of the main problems when generating hypotheses on the formation and evolution of objects in the Solar System is the lack of samples that can be analysed in the laboratory, where a large suite of tools are available and the full body of knowledge derived from terrestrial geology can be brought to bear. Direct samples from the Moon, asteroids and Mars are present on Earth, removed from their parent bodies and delivered as meteorites. Some of these have suffered contamination from the oxidising effect of Earth's atmosphere and the infiltration of the biosphere, but those meteorites collected in the last few decades from Antarctica are almost entirely pristine.

The different types of meteorites that originate from the asteroid belt cover almost all parts of the structure of differentiated bodies: meteorites even exist that come from the core-mantle boundary (pallasites). The combination of geochemistry and observational astronomy has also made it possible to trace the HED meteorites back to a specific asteroid in the main belt, 4 Vesta.

The comparatively few known Martian meteorites have provided insight into the geochemical composition of the Martian crust, although the unavoidable lack of information about their points of origin on the diverse Martian surface has meant that they do not provide more detailed constraints on theories of the evolution of the Martian lithosphere.[11] As of July 24, 2013 65 samples of Martian meteorites have been discovered on Earth. Many were found in either Antarctica or the Sahara Desert.

During the Apollo era, in the Apollo program, 384 kilograms of lunar samples were collected and transported to the Earth, and 3 Soviet Luna robots also delivered regolith samples from the Moon. These samples provide the most comprehensive record of the composition of any Solar System body beside the Earth. The numbers of lunar meteorites are growing quickly in the last few years [12] as ofApril 2008 there are 54 meteorites that have been officially classified as lunar.Eleven of these are from the US Antarctic meteorite collection, 6 are from the JapaneseAntarctic meteorite collection, and the other 37 are from hot desert localities in Africa,Australia, and the Middle East. The total mass of recognized lunar meteorites is close to50kg.

Space probes made it possible to collect data in not only the visible light region, but in other areas of the electromagnetic spectrum. The planets can be characterized by their force fields: gravity and their magnetic fields, which are studied through geophysics and space physics.

Measuring the changes in acceleration experienced by spacecraft as they orbit has allowed fine details of the gravity fields of the planets to be mapped. For example, in the 1970s, the gravity field disturbances above lunar maria were measured through lunar orbiters, which led to the discovery of concentrations of mass, mascons, beneath the Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Nectaris and Humorum basins.

If a planet's magnetic field is sufficiently strong, its interaction with the solar wind forms a magnetosphere around a planet. Early space probes discovered the gross dimensions of the terrestrial magnetic field, which extends about 10 Earth radii towards the Sun. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles, streams out and around the terrestrial magnetic field, and continues behind the magnetic tail, hundreds of Earth radii downstream. Inside the magnetosphere, there are relatively dense regions of solar wind particles, the Van Allen radiation belts.

Geophysics includes seismology and tectonophysics, geophysical fluid dynamics, mineral physics, geodynamics, mathematical geophysics, and geophysical surveying.

Planetary geodesy, (also known as planetary geodetics) deals with the measurement and representation of the planets of the Solar System, their gravitational fields and geodynamic phenomena (polar motion in three-dimensional, time-varying space. The science of geodesy has elements of both astrophysics and planetary sciences. The shape of the Earth is to a large extent the result of its rotation, which causes its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geologic processes such as the collision of plates and of vulcanism, resisted by the Earth's gravity field. These principles can be applied to the solid surface of Earth (orogeny; Few mountains are higher than 10km (6mi), few deep sea trenches deeper than that because quite simply, a mountain as tall as, for example, 15km (9mi), would develop so much pressure at its base, due to gravity, that the rock there would become plastic, and the mountain would slump back to a height of roughly 10km (6mi) in a geologically insignificant time. Some or all of these geologic principles can be applied to other planets besides Earth. For instance on Mars, whose surface gravity is much less, the largest volcano, Olympus Mons, is 27km (17mi) high at its peak, a height that could not be maintained on Earth. The Earth geoid is essentially the figure of the Earth abstracted from its topographic features. Therefore, the Mars geoid is essentially the figure of Mars abstracted from its topographic features. Surveying and mapping are two important fields of application of geodesy.

The atmosphere is an important transitional zone between the solid planetary surface and the higher rarefied ionizing and radiation belts. Not all planets have atmospheres: their existence depends on the mass of the planet, and the planet's distance from the Sun too distant and frozen atmospheres occur. Besides the four gas giant planets, almost all of the terrestrial planets (Earth, Venus, and Mars) have significant atmospheres. Two moons have significant atmospheres: Saturn's moon Titan and Neptune's moon Triton. A tenuous atmosphere exists around Mercury.

The effects of the rotation rate of a planet about its axis can be seen in atmospheric streams and currents. Seen from space, these features show as bands and eddies in the cloud system, and are particularly visible on Jupiter and Saturn.

Planetary science frequently makes use of the method of comparison to give a greater understanding of the object of study. This can involve comparing the dense atmospheres of Earth and Saturn's moon Titan, the evolution of outer Solar System objects at different distances from the Sun, or the geomorphology of the surfaces of the terrestrial planets, to give only a few examples.

The main comparison that can be made is to features on the Earth, as it is much more accessible and allows a much greater range of measurements to be made. Earth analogue studies are particularly common in planetary geology, geomorphology, and also in atmospheric science.

The use of terrestrial analogues was first described by Gilbert (1886).[13]

Smaller workshops and conferences on particular fields occur worldwide throughout the year.

This non-exhaustive list includes those institutions and universities with major groups of people working in planetary science. Alphabetical order is used.

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Planetary science - Wikipedia

According to the Giant Impact Hypothesis, the Moon formed when a Mars-sized object (named Theia) collided with Earth billion years ago, at a time when the Earth was still a ball of magma. This event not only led to the Earth-Moon system we recognize today, it is also beleived to have led to the differentiation of the Earths core region into an molten Outer Core and a solid Inner Core.

However, there has been an ongoing debate as to the timing of this impact and how long the subsequent formation of the Moon took place. According to a new study by a team of German researchers, the Moon formed from a magma ocean that took up to 200 million years to solidify. This means that the Moon finished forming about 4.425 billion years ago, or 100 million years later than previously thought.

The study, which recently appeared in the journal Science Advances (titled A long-lived magma ocean on a young Moon), was conducted by planetary geophysicists from the German Aerospace Center (DLR), along with researchers from the Technical University of Berlin and the Institute of Planetology at the University of Mnster.

When Earth was still in the process of forming roughly four-and-a-half billion years ago, the Solar System was a rather chaotic place. At the time, planetesimals that had also formed from the protoplanetary disk were tossed about and would occasionally collide with a planet. In Earths case, this had the effect of adding to its mass and causing its core region to become denser and hotter.

Over time, heavier elements sunk to the center of the Earth, leading to the formation of its iron-nickel core. At the same time, increasingly large parts of the Earths mantle melted to form a magma ocean. When Theia collided with Earth, this ocean became several thousands of kilometers deep and much of it was expelled into space. This material either was then reabsorbed by Earth or coalesced in orbit around it to form the Moon.

While most scientists today believe that this is an accurate scenario for how the Moon formed, there has been disagreement about the details and timing of the process. As Maxime Maurice, a researcher with the DLR and the lead author on the study, said:

The results of our latest modelling suggest that the young Earth was hit by a protoplanet some 140 million years after the birth of the Solar System 4.567 billion years ago. According to our calculations, this happened 4.425 billion years ago with an uncertainty of 25 million years and the Moon was born.

One of the reasons there has been disagreement over the Grand Impact Hypothesis has to do with the very thing that inspired it in the first place: Moon rocks. Basically, of all the Moon rocks brought back to Earth by the six Apollo missions and the three Soviet Luna landers, none provide a direct record of the Moons age. As a result, scientists have had to rely on indirect methods for coming up with lunar age estimates.

In addition, the energy gained by the accretion of material also led to the formation of a magma ocean on the Moon, which covered the entire surface and was over 1000 km (620 mi) deep at the time. Also like Earth, this magma ocean began to quickly cool and crystallize to form a crust, which had the effect of insulating the magma beneath it and slowing down the cooling process.

Until now, scientists were unable to determine how long it took for the magma ocean to crystallize completely, which made determining when the Moon originally formed tricky. To arrive at their estimates, Maurice and his colleagues used a new computer model that comprehensively considered the processes involved in the solidification of the magma similar to what did Maurice (though in greater detail) for his Ph.D. thesis.

This consisted of calculating how the composition of silicate minerals in the Moons crust that are rich in magnesium and iron (which formed during the solidification of the magma) changed over time. What they found was evidence that as solidification progressed, there was a drastic change in the composition of the remaining magma ocean.

This finding allowed the team to link the formation of different types of rock on the Moon to a certain stage in the solidification process. Ultimately, this led them to conclude that the Moons magma ocean took almost 200 million years before it fully solidified to form the Moons crust. This contradicts what scientists previously thought, which was that it took only 35 million years to solidify.

As Sabrina Schwinger, a researcher with the DLR and a co-author on the study, summarized:

By comparing the measured composition of the Moons rocks with the predicted composition of the magma ocean from our model, we were able to trace the evolution of the ocean back to its starting point, the time at which the Moon was formed.

Last, but not least, the results of this study are consistent with previous age estimates obtained with the uranium-lead method. Based on the rate at which uranium decays to become lead, scientists found that the Earths metallic core completed forming at roughly the same time. Therefore, this study is the first to directly link the age of the Moon to an event that occurred at the very end of the Earths formation.

As always, determining how one body in the Solar System formed can shed light on how the others did as well. And when it comes to the Earth-Moon system, the origins of one are inextricably tied up with the other.

Further Reading: DLR, Science Advances

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The Moon Might Have Formed a Little Later than Originally Believed - Universe Today

Image Source : PTI/AP

The moon was formed from a magma ocean that took up to 200 million years to solidify

According to a new study, the moon was formed from a magma ocean that took up to 200 million years to solidify. This points out to the fact that the moon finished forming about 4.425 billion years ago, or 100 million years later than previously thought.

The study, which recently appeared in the journal Science Advances titled A long-lived magma ocean on a young Moon, was conducted by planetary geophysicists from the German Aerospace Center (DLR), along with researchers from the Technical University of Berlin and the Institute of Planetology at the University of Mnster.

According to Universe Today, When Earth was still in the process of forming roughly four-and-a-half billion years ago, the Solar System was a rather chaotic place. At the time, planetesimals that had also formed from the protoplanetary disk were tossed about and would occasionally collide with a planet. In Earths case, this had the effect of adding to its mass and causing its core region to become denser and hotter.

Over time, heavier elements sunk to the center of the Earth, leading to the formation of its iron-nickel core. At the same time, increasingly large parts of the Earths mantle melted to form a magma ocean. When Theia collided with Earth, this ocean became several thousands of kilometers deep and much of it was expelled into space. This material either was then reabsorbed by Earth or coalesced in orbit around it to form the Moon.

According to the scientists, the is the process by which the moon was formed. As Maxime Maurice, a researcher with the DLR and the lead author on the study, said:The results of our latest modelling suggest that the young Earth was hit by a protoplanet some 140 million years after the birth of the Solar System 4.567 billion years ago. According to our calculations, this happened 4.425 billion years ago with an uncertainty of 25 million years and the Moon was born.

The team found the evidence that as solidification progressed, there was a drastic change in the composition of the remaining magma ocean.

This finding allowed the team to link the formation of different types of rock on the Moon to a certain stage in the solidification process. Ultimately, this led them to conclude that the Moons magma ocean took almost 200 million years before it fully solidified to form the Moons crust. This contradicts what scientists previously thought, which was that it took only 35 million years to solidify.

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Actual age of Moon revealed!! Read on to find out - India TV News

By Scottie Andrew, CNN

(CNN) -- The moon is a constant in our lives. It causes Earth's ocean tides to ebb and flow, it stabilizes the planet's axial tilt and, until recently, it was assumed to have accompanied the Earth for over 4.5 billion years.

A new study has posited that previous estimates of the moon's age were millions of years off.

Scientists from the German Aerospace Center calculated how long it took the moon's magma ocean -- it's a widely held belief that the lunar surface was once molten -- to cool, and they estimated that the moon is actually almost 100 million years younger than previously thought -- about 85 million years younger, to be exact.

So the moon, they say, was actually born at the tail-end of the Earth's formation.

"This is the first time that the age of the Moon can be directly linked to an event that occurred at the very end of the Earth's formation, namely the formation of the core," said Thorsten Kleine, study co-author from the Institute of Planetology at the University of Mnster in Germany.

Their findings were published this month in the journal Science Advances.

Many scientists agree on the moon's origin story: Around 4.51 billion years ago, the Earth was still heating up and changing rapidly. During that time, it collided with a protoplanet called Theia, which sent rock shooting off Earth and into space.

Theia gets it name from one of the titans in Greek mythology, known as the mother of the moon goddess Selene. Nothing remains of the protoplanet.

This debris eventually collected over a couple thousand years and formed Earth's natural satellite -- the moon.

The energy that resulted from the agglomeration of rock created an ocean of magma on the nascent moon's surface. It eventually crystallized and formed the lunar surface as we know it today.

Samples returned from the moon during the Apollo missions and Soviet Luna robototic missions have not helped to provide data for an exact age of the moon. So scientists have had to explore other methods.

Using a computer model, the team of scientists estimated how long it took the moon's magma ocean to cool and solidify. Knowing how long that process of crystallization took clued them into how old the moon truly is.

Previous models estimated that it took up to 30 million years for the magma ocean to cool. This new study has suggested those models were millions of years off.

But how to re-create a process that took place during the very beginning of the solar system's existence? That part required a "great deal of imagination and creativity," the researchers said.

The scientists also needed to calculate the composition of the ancient minerals that formed when the ocean solidified. This helped them link different types of rocks to certain stages of the magma ocean's evolution.

All that modeling found that it took the moon nearly 200 million years to cool from its molten form and create what we now know as the lunar crust.

Scientists looked to the moon's mineral composition to estimate that the moon is around 4.425 billion years old, or 85 million years younger than what previous studies had proven. That's around the time Earth's core settled, the researchers said.

The-CNN-Wire & 2020 Cable News Network, Inc., a WarnerMedia Company. All rights reserved.

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The moon is about 85 million years younger than we thought, new study finds - WDJT

A new research at the German Aerospace Center has thrown light on some new insights regarding the evolution of the Moon. The researchers have estimated that the actual age of the lunar body is 85 million years less than the earlier estimates. The scientists have also found that there used to be a huge and fiery magma ocean on the moon, Space.com reported.

It is believed that around billions of years ago, the Moon emerged out of the collision between the Earth and a Mars size protoplanet. The new research has precisely focused on the estimated timeline of the collision between the Earth and the protoplanet and found that the actual collision happened around 4.425 billion years ago and not 4.51 billion years ago as believed till now.

The scientists reached the conclusion with the help of the mathematical models used to calculate the composition of the Moon over time. With the assumption that the magma ocean was hosted by the Moon, the scientists calculated how the minerals that were formed due to the cooling and solidification of the magma changed over time. Taking the timeline of the Magma ocean as their reference point, the researchers successfully traced their way to the Moons formation.

Co-author of the study Sabrina Schwinger in a statement said that the researchers compared the composition of the Moons rocks with the predicted composition of the magma ocean according to their model. The new research also agrees with the previous research that put the formation of the Moon to the time when the Earth formed its metallic core, the statement added. The new study has been published in the journal Sciene Advances on July 10.

Thorsten Kleine, professor at the Institute of Planetology at the University of Mnster in Germany also said that with the finding of the new study, the age of the Moon for the first time could be linked to an event that occured at the end of the earths formation- the formation of the core.

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Younger by 85 million years! Research reveals surprising insights about Moons actual age, formation and core - The Financial Express

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The moon is about 85 million years younger than we thought, new study finds - KMOV.com

The moon is a constant in our lives. It causes Earths ocean tides to ebb and flow, it stabilizes the planets axial tilt and, until recently, it was assumed to have accompanied the Earth for over 4.5 billion years.

A new study has posited that previous estimates of the moons age were millions of years off.

Scientists from theGerman Aerospace Centercalculated how long it took themoons magma ocean its a widely held belief that the lunar surface was once molten to cool, and they estimated that the moon is actually almost 100 million years younger than previously thought about 85 million years younger, to be exact.

So the moon, they say, was actually born at the tail-end of the Earths formation.

This is the first time that the age of the Moon can be directly linked to an event that occurred at the very end of the Earths formation, namely the formation of the core,saidThorsten Kleine, study co-author from the Institute of Planetology at the University of Mnster in Germany.

Their findings were published this month in the journalScience Advances.

Many scientists agree on the moons origin story: Around 4.51 billion years ago, the Earth was still heating up and changing rapidly. During that time, it collided with a protoplanet called Theia, which sent rock shooting off Earth and into space.

Theia gets it name from one of the titans in Greek mythology, known as the mother of the moon goddess Selene. Nothing remains of the protoplanet.

This debris eventually collected over a couple thousand years and formed Earths natural satellite the moon.

The energy that resulted from the agglomeration of rock created an ocean of magma on the nascent moons surface. It eventually crystallized and formed the lunar surface as we know it today.

Samples returned from the moon during the Apollo missions and Soviet Luna robototic missions have not helped to provide data for an exact age of the moon. So scientists have had to explore other methods.

Using a computer model, the team of scientists estimated how long it took the moons magma ocean to cool and solidify. Knowing how long that process of crystallization took clued them into how old the moon truly is.

Previous models estimated that it took up to 30 million years for the magma ocean to cool. This new study has suggested those models were millions of years off.

But how to re-create a process that took place during the very beginning of the solar systems existence? That part required a great deal of imagination and creativity, the researchers said.

The scientists also needed to calculate the composition of the ancient minerals that formed when the ocean solidified. This helped them link different types of rocks to certain stages of the magma oceans evolution.

All that modeling found that it took the moon nearly 200 million years to cool from its molten form and create what we now know as the lunar crust.

Scientists looked to the moons mineral composition to estimate that the moon is around 4.425 billion years old, or 85 million years younger than what previous studies had proven. Thats around the time Earths core settled, the researchers said.

The-CNN-Wire

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New Study Says the Moon's Age is Millions of Years Off - NBC Palm Springs

Future Mars missions have been hyped up all over the internet and beyond. Using the upcoming Lunar Gateway as a way station is one option, but what if there was a faster way that didnt involve the Moon (no offense to our satellite) or massive amounts of fuel?

Such a way does exist. Because waiting too long for planets to align is not an option, a team of scientists and engineers have proposed a way to use Venus as a cosmic slingshot to Mars. The spacecraft would use the same gravity assist method as the Voyagers and Cassini. It would take advantage of our sister planets gravity by approaching just close enough to marginally slow down the orbiting planet, whose energy would then shoot it to Mars, but not before astronauts on the mission got to study the mysterious second planet.

You know this method has to have some potential if NASA hinted at it in its Plan for Sustained Lunar Exploration and Development, which also included possibilities for Mars.

"'Humans to Mars Via Venus'is logical, exciting, and offers unprecedented science at Mars and Venus at a fraction of the cost of dedicated crewed missions to both, the scientists said in a white paper currently on the preprint server ArXiv. Venus is how we get to Mars.

It would also take less time. If we were to take the route of a conjunction mission, which relies on two planets orbits aligning, the launch would have to be put off for up to a year and a half. Getting to and from Mars would also take longer. That means 180 days each way and 550 days on the Red Planet. You really dont want to deal with living in deep space for too long when the human body isnt made to exist without gravity. An opposition mission, which is the type being suggested now, would put the spacecraft in a position to be launched toward Mars by the gravitational forces of Venus. This is how Voyager 2 managed its tour of all the planets before drifting off to the outer reaches of the solar system.

NASAs probe pulled off an opposition mission by borrowing some gravitational energy from Jupiter and Saturn, though most notably Jupiters. It approached until the gas giants gravity pulled it in, increasing its speed until its own gravitation pulled at Jupiter, marginally decreasing the orbiting planets momentum as it moves in an arc. This might have not been a big deal for something as gargantuan as Jupiter. For Voyager 2, it was huge. What the spacecraft took from Jupiter boosted the momentum it already had and gave it enough power to launch in the opposite direction, with the planets gravity bending its path toward Saturn, where it would repeat the process. Both Voyagers are now trekking through interstellar space.

Venus isnt just a convenient gas station for energy. While gravitational energy will save what would otherwise be a crushing amount of money spent on fuel (and liftoff when you factor in the extra weight), NASA is considering plans for astronauts to get a closer look at its toxic skies and scorching surface before they take off again. Contrary to what sci-fi would have you believe, robot brains are not infallible. Human brains are much better at making observations during a flyby. Rovers and other instruments can ride along with the astronauts and be controlled with a joystick in what sounds like the most awesome space video game ever.

Manned missions to Venus were part of our space agencys plans anyway. Why not just use an excursion to Mars as an opportunity?

A science-intensive flyby of Venus on any leg of a crewed mission to Mars makes any such endeavor a two-planet mission. Venus science is every bit as interesting and important as Mars, and just as crucial to comparative planetology, the scientists said. It is likely that a two-planet mission approach would more than justify adding a Venus science focus to Mars-bound flybys of Venus.

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If we fly by Venus, well zoom to Mars faster (and cheaper) supposedly - SYFY WIRE

It turns out the moon is a little younger than scientists previously thought about 85 million years younger, to be precise.

In a new study, researchers at the German Aerospace Center found out that, not only did the moon once have a massive, fiery magma ocean, but our rocky satellite also formed later than scientists previously expected.

Billions of years ago, a Mars-size protoplanet smashed into the young Earth and, amid the debris and cosmic rubble, a new rocky body formed our moon. In this new work, the researchers reconstructed the timeline of the moon's formation. While scientists have previously thought that this moon-forming collision happened 4.51 billion years ago, the new work pegged the moon's birth at only 4.425 billion years ago.

Related: How the Moon formed: 5 wild lunar theories

To determine this 85-million-year error in the moon's age, the team used mathematical models to calculate the composition of the moon over time. Based on the idea that the moon was host to a massive magma ocean, the researchers calculated how the minerals that formed as the magma cooled solidified changed over time. By following the timeline of the magma ocean, the scientists were able to trace their way back to the moon's formation.

"By comparing the measured composition of the moon's rocks with the predicted composition of the magma ocean from our model, we were able to trace the evolution of the ocean back to its starting point, the time at which the moon was formed," study co-author Sabrina Schwinger, a researcher at the German Aerospace Center, said in a statement.

These findings, which show that the moon formed 4.425 billion years ago (give or take 25 million years), agree with previous research that aligned the moon's formation with the formation of Earth's metallic core, according to the statement.

"This is the first time that the age of the moon can be directly linked to an event that occurred at the very end of the Earth's formation, namely the formation of the core," Thorsten Kleine, a professor at the Institute of Planetology at the University of Mnster in Germany, said in the same statement.

These findings were described in a new study published on July 10 in the journal Science Advances.

Email Chelsea Gohd at cgohd@space.com or follow her on Twitter @chelsea_gohd. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.

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The moon is 85 million years younger than previously thought - Space.com

NIO and Tesla seem to be defying the overall downtrend in the Chinese NEV market with their rising sales in June.

The China Passenger Car Association released the overall auto and NEV (new energy vehicle) sales on July 8. While the total auto sales declined by 6.5% YoY (year-over-year), the NEV sales fell 35% YoY in June. The auto recovery in China, which started on a strong footing amid the pandemic, seems to be derailing again.

Some companies have been defying the downward trend in EV (electric vehicle) sales in China. Tesla (NASDAQ:TSLA), the EV pioneer, recorded 35% month-over-month growth in EV sales in June. Teslas China-made Model 3 grew by 150% month-over-month in May. The company sold 14,954 Model 3s, which brought its market share in Chinas EV market to 23% in June.

After May, Tesla Model 3s impressive sales in June show that government incentives and the introduction of more variants helped the companys sales.

NIO (NYSE:NIO) also recorded increased EV sales in June. The company reported its June delivery numbers on July 2. The EV-maker reported its second consecutive sales record in June. With the sales of 3,740 vehicles, NIO recorded an increase of 179% YoY.

Technode noted that premium EVs, like NIO and Lixiang, sold well across the board. The growth rate for premium autos was 27% YoY. In contrast, lower-priced EVs, like BYD and Geely, recorded fewer sales.

NIO and Tesla are among the EV-makers that have been gaining ground in Chinas EV market. Right now, Chinas EV market is still on shaky ground. The companies are well-known and respected brands in China. Consumers have been drawn to the companies compared to their more affordable counterparts. NIO and Teslas strong position in the worlds largest EV market is also reflected in their stock prices.

While Tesla stock has returned 227% year-to-date, NIO stock has gained 220%. Along with the general rising interest in the EV sector, their strong fundamentals support the stock prices. Recently, momentum trading has pushed NIO and Teslas stock prices. The stocks might see some pullback. However, investors focused on the long term can keep on holding these stocks due to their strong fundamentals and robust growth outlook.

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Are NIO and Tesla Defying the Downtrend in China's NEV Market? - Market Realist

The first Russian mission lands on the moon in October 2021, RIA Novosti reported, citing Roscosmos.

Time, which will take place from the start of the relevant automatic interplanetary station Luna-25 off the Ground before landing on the surface of the natural satellite will be about ten days. When you fly from one celestial body to another takes less than five days. Space station needs to prionitis in the South pole areas natural satellite.

In April, RIA Novosti, citing the comment of the General Director Scientifically-production Association named Lavochkin, Vladimir Kolmykov, said that Russia, along with the launch of a heavy landing station Luna-27 in August 2025 staked their place on the natural satellite of the Earth.

In the same month, the head of the Department of nuclear safety and planetology space research Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences Igor Mitrofanov said that the launch of a Russian spacecraft to the moon scheduled for October 1, 2021.

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Russia will soon sit on the moon - The KXAN 36 News

In the case of an asteroid strike to the Earth the mankind can be saved only if some people already would live on Mars. About it in conversation with journalists has told the head of the laboratory of neutron and gamma-ray spectroscopy Department of nuclear planetology space research Institute of RAS Maxim Litvak.

Move to Mars, as scientists noted, may be a saving grace for the part of civilization from the point of view of a global catastrophe. However, the relocation of mankind on another planet, too, has its pitfalls.

In the case of gravitational perturbations, caused, for example, rearrangements of the orbits of planets like Jupiter as it is, I assume, was previously in the inner Solar system can be attracted by objects from the asteroid belt, which, as the shrapnel will cut everything in its path, and the probability of their entering not only the Earth but also Mars can be very large, quotes the words of Litvak RIA Novosti.

The scientist also underlined that humanity, on whatever planet it lived, will not save civilization with the demise of the Sun. In this case, lost almost the whole Solar system entered into a Litvak.

As previously reported NEWS.ru scientists have made the most realistic model of destruction of an asteroid approaching the Earth. This will help to develop ways of protecting the planet.

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Called the condition of salvation of people after the fall of the asteroid - The KXAN 36 News