Biochemistry Graduate Programs analyze what happens at the molecular levels. With so many advances in the field, students might take part in, or learn about, innovative research in dynamic areas such as genetic engineering, agriculture, pharmacology, veterinary medicine, and biotechnology.

Biochemistry graduate programs offer a rigorous and broad-based curriculum of research and coursework that could lead to a Master of Science (MS) or Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree.

Most programs include a set of core topics that provide a great foundation in biomedical sciences. These may serve as a framework for advanced study in more focused areas.

A diverse and dynamic array of faculty mentors might take part in a given program to represent research areas such as drug discovery, cancer biology, HIV and more. Classes might be taught in a lecture format that could be followed by interactive group discussions on selected topics.

Conference sessions might also be held at intervals. These could provide a chance for students to integrate lecture material. Also, to apply knowledge to solve problems, generate hypotheses, design experiments, and interpret experimental data.

Graduate biochemistry students often spend time in the laboratory to supplement advanced courses. This blend of theory and practice allows students to explore areas such as cell development, growth, heredity, and disease more deeply. Lab work could help students learn to design and conduct experiments that test out theories or lead to discoveries.

A variety of program emphases could help students to zero in on a professionally meaningful topic to anchor their research interests. Also, through intensive science courses and experimentation, students might gain key skills as problem solvers, critical

thinkers, and effective communicators.i

Each biochemistry graduate school has its own set of standards and required components of a completed application. Below are a few things to look for, though individual schools should be the ultimate reference point.

The word biochemistry is the sum of two parts: (1) biology and (2) chemistry. Biochemistry is an active and laboratory-based branch of science that explores the chemical processes within and related to living organisms. Biochemists actually use their knowledge of chemistry and its techniques to solve problems in biology.

Biochemistrys focus is on what is going on inside our cells and therefore, puts under a microscope, components like proteins, lipids and organelles. It also looks at how cells communicate with each other, for example during growth or when we fight an illness.

Biochemists need to understand how the structure of a molecule relates to its function, so as to allow them to predict how molecules will interact. While course lists vary, graduate biochemistry curriculums could draw from many fascinating topics. See below for a few examples.ii

DID YOU KNOW?Nobel Laureate, Sydney Brenners work made it possible to link genetic analysis to cell division and organ formation.iii

Masters in Biochemistry programs could provide an integrated course plan. Students typically work at the interface between chemistry and biology to probe the ways biomolecules interact and direct cellular function.

The first year of a two-year MS program could involve a rigorous coursework that provides a broad foundation in biomedical sciences. Through a hub of core courses, students commonly build proficiency in key areas such as Chemical Thermodynamics and Molecular Genetics.

This base often serves as a framework for advanced biochemical studies that may be scheduled for the second year. In tandem, course plans are often designed to help learners more broadly apply chemistry and biology to exciting and modern areas. Forensic Chemistry, Biochemistry of Cancer and Biochemistry of Obesity and Diabetes are a few examples.

Some programs may allow students to culminate their degree with either a thesis or non-thesis option, each of which results in 30 to 36 graduate-level credits (depending on the university) and a Master of Science degree.

Within the umbrella of Masters in Biochemistry programs, there may be an array of related programs and degrees to consider. A few examples from partner schools are listed below to give you a sense of just how much there is to explore in this field of study.

A Master of Science in Green Chemistry bridges elements of sustainability and environmental studies with chemistry courses from all five sub-disciplines.

The program could also leverage business courses to strengthen students' management and communication skills. A course in Global Environmental Regulation could cover trends and basic policies in legislation both nationally and internationally.

A relatively new concept, green chemistry evolved in the business and regulatory communities as a natural evolution of pollution prevention initiatives.

Per the American Chemical Society, Green chemistry takes the EPA's mandate a step further and creates a new reality for chemistry and engineering. It asks chemists and engineers to design chemicals, chemical processes, and commercial products in a way that, at the very least, avoids the creation of toxics and waste.v

A Master of Science in Biochemical Engineering (MSBChE) program could highlight the study of new technology and modeling tactics for bio-pharmaceutical production and development. Oriented to applicants with an undergrad degree in Chemical Engineering, coursework could aim to foster real-world skills.

MS students may be exposed to upstream and downstream bioprocess basics. Curriculums could also provide the tools to design and optimize pharmaceutical facilities, processes and products, through the use of contemporary analysis and technology.

A Master of Science in Chemistry could meld research, courses in all five branches of chemistry and lab work. Research opportunities, which could differ between schools, might be available inanalytical, inorganic, organic, physical and computational chemistry, as well as in biochemistry.

Students may be able to choose various options with this degree at partner school, Seton University. These are aresearch-based MSwith thesis (30 credits); a coursework-based MS without thesis; a MS with a minor in business administration (34 credits); and a research-based MS that could lead to PhD candidacy (30 credits).

A PhD in Biochemistry is a terminal research degree. Biochemistry PhD programs could provide much the same rigorous course work as a MS program, but with more intensive research components. For instance, classes in biostatistics, ethical conduct and research methods.

On average, the duration of study for a PhD degree is five years. The PhD program trains individuals to become independent researchers and educators in related research fields. Graduates might pursue opportunities to lead scientific investigations in industrial and/or academic settings.v

Courses and research opportunities are often school-dependent and may invite applicants to really look into the faculty on hand to see whether there is a symbiosis with their active projects or theories.

For instance, at partner school, NYMC, research areas in the Graduate School of Basic Medical Sciences might span molecular biology of the cancer process, molecular neurobiology, genetics and biochemistry of bacterial and viral pathogens and many others.

The first year of a PhD program could have students take General Biochemistry classes. Topics such as Biochemistry of Gene Expression Protein Structure and Function may also be required in the first two years. Students might also take several research rotations in the first year. The number of required rotations is often based on previous Masters-level research experience.

Second-year Biochemistry PhD students may need to take a Qualifying Exam. Success on the exam, coupled with completion of required courses and recommendation from faculty, usually means the student is accepted into candidacy. From there, studies and research typically turn to dissertation work.

A PhD in Chemical Engineering is a terminal degree program that stresses research and innovation. At the same time, a full spectrum of courses is meant to help students learn and apply knowledge.

For instance, a class in biochemical engineering could introduce students to the basics of biochemistry, microbiology, cell biology and molecular biology, as applied to several areasamong them, bio-product formation, enzyme kinetics, cell growth kinetics, and sterilization.

Interested students often look to see what active research projects a universitys department offers. For instance, at partner school, Villanova, students could choose from several areas. Some of these might include the following.

A PhD in Chemistry is a terminal degree where students might complete a dissertation and a range of between 40 to 70 credits spread across research, course work and seminars. Students may be able to tailor their studies through their course selection.

In some programs, students might choose from courses in analytical, organic, physical, inorganic and biochemistry. A curriculum might also enable students to take courses in Chemical Kinetics, Quantum Chemistry and Proteins. In the final year, participants might present a full seminar on their research contributions.

A Graduate Certificate in Biochemistry is often structured around just a few courses. While it is not a degree, a certificate could either help students prepare for one, or just provide graduate-level instruction.

As an example, a Certificate in Biochemical Engineering could be a set of courses that introduce the essentials of Biochemical Engineering. In addition, it may allow students to choose a few electives in topics related to Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical industries.

Students who want to earn a Masters in Chemical Engineering, but with an emphasis in Biochemical Engineering, might study to earn a Biochemical Engineering Certificate.

Too busy to earn a graduate degree in biochemistry on campus? Online Biochemistry Graduate Programs may enable students to learn the same material and earn the same degree through a flexible format.

In some programs, all lectures are pre-recorded, and students could log in anytime, from any internet-connected device. Assignments might be scanned and emailed to the professor or faxed in.

Biochemists and biophysicists need a PhD to work in independent research-and-development positions. PhD graduates might begin their careers in temporary postdoctoral research positions that could last several years. ii

The time it takes to complete a PhD in Biochemistry varies. It depends on whether a student commits to a full-time or part-time program, whether they smoothly pass exams, and complete research in a timely manner.

Also, some students might enter a PhD program right from college, which could add more courses than for students who enter with an earned masters degree. Bachelors and masters degree holders might pursue some entry-level positions in biochemistry and biophysics. ii

First off, biochemists might conduct basic and applied research in areas such as metabolism, reproduction, DNA, hormones and so on. Some may manage teams or labs, present findings at conferences, teach what they know, and/or develop new methods, drugs, cures.

Basic research is conducted with the aim to expand human knowledge. This type of research usually asks students to write grant proposals to fund their projects.

Applied research is directed toward solving a particular problem. Drug discovery, biofuels and genetically-engineered crops are examples of applied research.

Based on the May 2016 data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average annual salary for Biochemists and Biophysicists was $82,180.vi

Easily compare more Biochemistry graduate programs from partner schools. Set filters such as degree level and program format. Or, look for Biochemistry graduate schools in a specific city, state or country. From there, the next step is simple. Fill out the on-page form to contact the programs on your list.

[i] onetonline.org/link/summary/19-1021.00 | [ii] bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/biochemists-and-biophysicists.htm#tab-4 |[iii]nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2002/brenner-facts.html | [iv] acs.org/content/acs/en/greenchemistry/what-is-green-chemistry.html | [v] bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/biochemists-and-biophysicists.htm#tab-2 | [vi] bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/biochemists-and-biophysicists.htm#tab-5

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Biochemistry Graduate Programs & Schools

All cannabidiol (CBD) is not created equal in clinical practice in terms of implementation. The most frustrating thing for clinicians and also for patients is when an intended protocol doesnt work. As I discuss later under the With treatment, start low section of this article, there are ways to use CBD most effectively.

You probably werent taught this in medical school, but CBD works on the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The ECS contains CB1 and CB2 receptors, in addition to other receptors that are activated by the naturally occurring endocannabinoids made in our bodies, called anandamide and 2-AG. We all have CB1 or CB2 receptors within our body if you have a cat or dog, they have these receptors too. All mammals do. How could it be that we did not even know of the predominance of the ECS until 1992?

Patients coming in worn out can be a sign of endocannabinoid deficiency and the inability to support their pathways optimally, much like adrenal fatigue. Phytocannabinoids like CBD obtained from hemp products can act on the same receptors as endocannabinoids made in the body. CBD receptors, much like opioid receptors, control pain, but via a different mechanism.

Patients arrive at our clinical practices fatigued, anxious, in pain, inflamed, and lots reach a point of adrenal burnout, adrenal fatigue. Indeed, that is often the case because they are suffering from an endocannabinoid deficiency. We see people who have low adrenal function at noon, and in the evening, they are tired, dragging, eat lunch, get a little spike, and then they start free falling again. Theyre flat-lining. How is it that we wake up each morning anticipating with trepidation and run with go, go, go pace and finish the day glad to have survived another day? Life is meant for more than that; it is time to shift our goals from merely surviving to thriving mode!

Researchers observed approximately six years ago that people were more anxious and depressed in the middle of the summer than ever before, a new phenomenon. This goes against what we previously believed, that depression spiked mostly in the holiday season and Thanksgiving and after the winter solstice. But now were seeing people are worn out even in summer. Indeed, the endocannabinoid system plays a role here.

Anandamide is one of our endocannabinoids. When it becomes lower, patients are more anxious. There is less healing of the brain, less neurogenesis, and the hypothalamic-pituitary axis is triggered, causing a whole cascade of events to occur. What we now know is that the endocannabinoid system naturally, or with the use of CBD, alters our microbiome in our gut, beneficially affecting the gut-brain axis. The GI tract is the site of many receptors. We make about 70% of our serotonin, the happy-brain chemical, in the GI tract. About 70-80% of our immune system is in our GI tract, so is it any surprise that we have CB1, CB2 regulatory pathways in our GI tract that work via the endocannabinoid system to control inflammation? These same pathways can be regulated using an innovative CBD strategy.

With endocannabinoid deficiency symptoms patients can get migraines. We thought migraines were just triggered by tyramine-rich foods, such as cheese, fermented foods, and salami and other such foods; along with other triggers as well.

However, the endocannabinoid pathway is designed to control pain and inflammation and also regulate the immune system to a large degree. I have found in my clinical practice that innovative CBD strategies can be useful in supporting the health of migraine sufferers.

The body is designed with innate intelligence to sustain optimal performance. People ask, Well, how is CBD metabolized? Its primarily metabolized through the liver, and as a result, it goes through the cytochrome 450 and other pathways.Wellness is ultimately about homeostasis. We all know the term entropy, the tendency for the universe to move toward chaos. But our body exerts a phenomenal amount of energy to maintain order and wellness. However, if the endocannabinoid system becomes deficient, this will adversely affect wellness. This endocannabinoid deficiency, in turn, affects the microbiome, contributing to a less healthy endocannabinoidome.

CBD can conserve anandamide that is made by the body, and CBD can support anandamide conservation in an attempt to bring the body back into homeostasis. The endocannabinoid system supports brain health. By treating the brain, it addresses the pain, because if we didnt have a brain, we wouldnt feel the pain from a perception perspective.

Anxiety also is a biochemical process. Its real. A lot of people say, Its all in my head. No, stress is real because its a physiological effect. There is biochemistry involved in anxiety. We want to use innovative CBD strategies to support calming pathways and bring peace and harmony into the brain.

If a patient has brain inflammation, neuroplasticity is not going to be as healthy or robust. And the fact is, on a typical day, we lose about 86,400 brain cells. CBD is an anti-inflammatory application. And from a neuropathic perspective, activation of cannabinoid receptors is essential. Ive looked at research involving the endocannabinoid system relative to cancer medications and so forth. Not being an oncologist, I am not suggesting this is a treatment for cancer, but there are pain, stress and immune challenges that often need to be associated with this disease state, so visiting with ones provider in this arena is vital.

We can start manifesting symptoms of migraines, fatigue, irritable bowel, whatever it might be, as a result of being subpar, insufficient or deficient of endocannabinoids. An endocannabinoid deficiency manifests itself as simply that the body has gotten worn down, much like low adrenal function, often called adrenal fatigue. So we need to support that pathway to bring it back on track like we would any other functional biochemistry, which our body is designed to do. And since were designed to make endocannabinoids, we need to bring those levels back up to par.

The goal is to start low and go slow, as a little bit can go a long way for many patients. More is not always better, as each person responds differently based on genetics, biochemistry and individual need.

Just like if youre performing an adjustment, a little bit of a movement might get the job done. Work with gentle modulation of the endocannabinoid system. Youre working within the innate ability of the body.

Fifteen to 25 milligrams per day is what I start my patients on. In a week or two, if I need to move them up to 25 mg two to three times a day, I will. Once again, if a little bit gets the job done, why more? It is of paramount importance to respect the innate delicate balance physiology of the body. Some patients will need much higher doses because of their endocannabinoid insufficiency or potential genetic polymorphisms. Youre going to encounter genetic polymorphisms, or what I termed mutations of the CBD receptors and the CBD pathway.

I never go to high-milligram doses, especially on patients taking pharmaceutical drugs, without working with their pharmacists, because CBD can affect similar liver detoxification, as well as other biochemical pathways of how drugs are metabolized, much like grapefruit juice, can impact many of the same medications. We want to also support those drug-metabolizing pathways with diet and lifestyle.

CBD, when dosed properly, can positively supplement a health-promoting diet and lifestyle. Its not a substitute for these things. So, we want to ensure were taking steps to support the body at a foundational level. Additionally, we always want to ensure the THC levels in the CBD you are using are less than 0.3%, or that the CBD contains no THC, when targeting hemp-derived CBD.

Endocannabinoid deficiency is associated with low cortisol, stress and adrenal fatigue. Were all getting older. Our mitochondria are wearing down. Our nitric oxide levels arent as robust as they used to be, and we need support at a fundamental level. In regards to the 65 potential molecular targets that are currently known for CBD, there is a lot of untapped potential here relative to stress and aging. Innovative CBD use is a new area; it can be a scary area, but remember, our bodies have been producing endocannabinoids for millennia. All were doing is supporting a natural pathway.

CHRIS D. MELETIS, ND, is an educator, international author and lecturer. His mission is Changing Worlds Health, One Person at a Time. He believes that when people become educated about their bodies is the moment positive change begins. He is widely recognized as a world-renowned expert on the science of CBD and has authored 16 books and over 200 national scientific articles in such journals and magazines as Natural Health, Alternative and Complementary Therapies, Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, Life Extension and The Journal of Restorative Medicine. He served as dean of naturopathic medicine and chief medical officer for seven years at NUNM, the oldest naturopathic medical school in North America. He has received numerous awards, including the prestigious Physician of the Year Award by the American Association of Naturopathic Physicians; Excellence Award for his work in treating and advocating for the medically underserved; and most recently, the NUNM Hall of Fame Award. He represents TruGen3 and can be contacted at DrMeletis.com.

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Innovative CBD system balancing with Dr Meletis - Chiropractic Economics

Dundalk-born scientist Dr Pearse Lyons has been awarded a St Patricks Day medal by the Taoiseach to recognise his contribution to science.

Dr Lyons was honoured by Taoiseach Enda Kenny in a ceremony in Washington. The Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) awards, now in their fourth year, mark the achievements of experts living and working in the US who have strong links to Ireland.

Born and raised in Dundalk, Dr Lyons graduated with a first class honours degree in Biochemistry. While at college, he worked in Harp Lager in Dundalk and later graduated with a Master of Science in Brewing Science, from the British School of Malting and Brewing (now the School of Biochemistry), University of Birmingham in 1968. He received a PhD in Biochemistry in 1971.

Dr Lyons' work led him to Kentucky in 1976, where in 1980 he founded scientific research company Alltech with the aim of improving the health and performance of people, animals and plants.

Dr Lyons was honoured along with Dublin born statistician, Professor Adrian Raftery, at the United States Institute of Peace in Washington. Mr Kenny said: "I am delighted to present the SFI St Patrick's Day Science Medal on behalf of Science Foundation Ireland, to these two exceptional leaders.

"Dr Lyons and Prof Raftery have both had a huge impact in their own areas of expertise and played pivotal roles in the development of researchers in Ireland.

"They have demonstrated how academic and industry based scientific research can create jobs, tackle global problems and impact positively on people and society. These distinguished medal recipients are driving globally significant innovation in the areas of agriculture, food production, health, and population and weather forecasting, to name just a few."

Dr Lyons said he was "so proud" to accept the medal.

"While my business is global, my passion for biochemistry and entrepreneurship started at home in Ireland.

"As a company, we still have very close links to Ireland with one of our three biosciences research centres based in Dunboyne, Co Meath. Science and technology play a very important part in my company's success and all of the Alltech team work to innovate every day.

"We strive to put scientific research at the core of our business and to use that research to drive our success at home and abroad."

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Dundalk-born scientist awarded St Patrick's Day medal in Washington - Dundalk Democrat

A shortage of consultant clinical biochemists is causing recruitment difficulties for Cork University Hospital, where the biochemistry laboratory has advised GPs it cannot provide clinical advice or interpretation of test results because of lack of clinical governance.

Dr John O'Mullane: Retired last September.

The hospitals biochemistry department has also advised GPs it has sought to voluntarily suspend its accreditation as efforts continue to recruit a consultant clinical biochemist following the retirement, last September, of department chief Dr John OMullane.

Asked how many staff vacancies were in the department, the hospital said: At any given time, allowing that there are a great number of personnel employed in the laboratory, there can be several or no vacancies.

In terms of the current situation, the hospital said there was one consultant clinical biochemist vacancy and that its medical manpower department is actively recruiting both a locum replacement and a permanent replacement.

The hospital said as available candidates are not plentiful, it is difficult to put a timeframe on either competition.

GPs have been advised that, since March 31, the department has not been in a position to provide a clinical advisory service.

Asked what reassurance it could provide in the absence of this advisory, the hospital said the same scientists will process patient specimens to a high-quality standard, as before, and within the same timeframe.

While we can advise service users to seek appropriate advice from other sources, we cannot directly provide that advice at this time. Specific clinical advice of this nature is not generally required for the majority of results, CUH said.

Asked what loss of accreditation would mean for the hospital, the response was that CUH biochemistry will continue to maintain the existing Quality Management System...designed to ensure the safe processing of laboratory tests, but will not be able to provide clinical advice for the interpretation of results.

The hospital said accreditation an independent verification of the extent to which an organisation meets pre-determined standards is not mandatory for biochemistry laboratories but that most, including CUH, achieve it as confirmation of maintaining the system.

The biochemistry department processed approximately 8m tests last year, including for liver function, cardiac function, , and general chemistries.

Irish Examiner Ltd. All rights reserved

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Cork University Hospital crisis due to lack of biochemists - Irish Examiner

Photosynthesis - an important biochemical reaction

Photosynthesis and the Web: 2008 - photosynthesis-related web sites grouped into several categories, e.g Subject Sites, Educational etc.- from Arizona State University

Milestones in Photosynthesis Research - Govindjee - a 32 page .pdf document (611 KB)

The Photosynthetic Process - from the Photosynthesis Research Unit, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, includes history of photosynthesis

A Primer on Photosynthesis and the Functioning of Cells - from the University of Michigan, Global Change I

The Nutrient requirements of Cells - from Kimball's Biology Pages

Photosynthesis- from the On-line Biology Book, Estrella Mountain Community College

Photosynthesis Study Guide - from Modern Biology textbook site

Photosynthesis in providing a source of energy

Vehicle Technologies Program from Office of Fuels Development US Dept of Energy -

Biodiesel, from US Dept of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Just the basics: Biodiesel -.pdf (283 KB), U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Carbon currency the credits and debits of carbon emissions trading - from Australian Academy of Sciences

Solar to Fuel: Catalyzing the Science - a paper from the Berkeley National Laboratory

Making Packaging Greener - Biodegradable Plastics, Reading list - from Australian Academy of Sciences

ABCs of Biopower - from the US Dept of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

The development of the theory of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis - including the contributions of key botanists, from Botany Online (The Internet Hypertextbook), University of Hamburg

Highlights in photosynthesis research - from the Nobel e-Museum

Research into Photosynthesis - from University of California, Berkeley

Chlorophyll - from Bristol University, UK

The people who contributed to the theory of photosynthesis

Analyzing van Helmont's Experiment - a student exercise

Hales, Stephen 1671-1761 - from History of Horticulture, the Ohio-State University

Nicolas-Theodore de SAUSSURE - from CYBERLIPID CENTER

Photosynthesis - from Botany Online, Hamburg University, details Blackman and Mathei's findings

Sachs, Julius Von 1832-1897 - from History pf Horticulture, the Ohio-State University

Julius v. SACHS (1832-1897) - from Botany Online, University of Hamburg

Mikhail Tswett (1872-1919) - from Le Moyne College

History of Development of Chromatography - from Wiley Publishing (pdf 1.28 MB)

Mikhail Tsvet - from Chemistry Daily

The Light Reactions of Photosynthesis - from Botany On-line, University of Hamburg

Robert HILL FRS (1899-1991) - brief memoir by a student (pdf, 550 KB)

Martin Kamen, Who Discovered Carbon-14 Here, Wins Fermi Award

Nobel Prize Awarded to Nine Berkeley Lab Scientists - from Science Beat at The Berkeley Labs

MELVIN CALVIN - from Nobel e-Museum

Melvin Calvin, 1961 Nobelist and UC Berkeley professor, dies at age 85 - from University of California, Berkeley

Photosynthesis - a light dependent reaction

Why study photosynthesis? - from Arizona State University

An Introduction to Photosynthesis and Its Applications - from Arizona State University

Johnsons's Photosynthesis Simulation - requires Shockwave - investigate the effects of light intensity and wavelength on Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis Simulation - laboratory activity based on the above simulation

Photosynthetic Pictures Are Worth More Than a Thousand Words - from Access Excellence

Photosynthesis: The Role of Light - Biology Pages are produced by John Kimball formerly a professor at Harvard University

Photosynthesis - Light Reactions. from Old Dominion University

Photosynthesis Problem Set 1 - from The Biology Project, University of Arizona, set of multiple choice questions with detailed feedback

Photosynthesis Problem Set 2 - from The Biology Project, University of Arizona, set of multiple choice questions with detailed feedback

Without pigments we're nothing - from University of Arizona

Chloroplasts and chlorophyll

Chloroplasts - from Kimball's Biology Pages

What the Heck is a Chloroplast? from Bugs in the News, Kansas University

Photosynthesis and Chromatography of its Pigments - from Science Projects

An Introduction to Chromatography - from Access Excellence

Chromatography - from Rensselaer Polytchnic Institute

Paper Chromatography - from Kimball's Biology pages

Chromatography - from Chemistry Daily

Lab 5 Green Plant I - Kean University, scroll down to SEPARATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF LEAF PIGMENTS

Use of radioisotopes in tracing biochemical reactions

Photosynthesis: Pathway of Carbon Fixation - Biology Pages are produced by John Kimball formerly a professor at Harvard University

Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates - from The Biology Project, The University of Arizona

The Dark Reactions of Photosynthesis, Assimilation of Carbon Dioxide and The CALVIN Cycle - from Botany Online, University of Hamburg

Photosynthesis Study Guide - for Modern Biology, Holt, Reinhart and Winston

ATP - energy currency

The Energy Relationships in Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis: the Balance Sheet - Biology Pages are produced by John Kimball formerly a professor at Harvard University

Energy: Making ATP - a detailed overview from University of Connecticut

Adenosine Triphosphate - ATP - from Molecule of the Month, Bristol University

Peter Mitchell (1920 - 1992) - and the chemiosmotic hypothesis from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997 - Walker, Boyer and Skou, from the Nobel e-Museum

Electron microscope and visualising plant organelles

Chloroplast - from Cells Alive

Chloroplasts - from Kimball's Biology Pages

Cell Structure and Function - Studyguide -see Question 27 (pdf, 300 KB)

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) - from The University of Nebraska

An Introduction to Microscopy - including The History of the Microscope

Virtual Microscopy - Interactive Java Tutorials, from Molecular Expressions

Page Maintained By: uniserve@usyd.edu.au Last Update: Monday, 30-Apr-2012 14:29:02 AEST URL: http://science.uniserve.edu.au/school/curric/stage6/biol/biolchem.html

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Biology - Biochemistry

The Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, which confers both M.S. and Ph.D. degrees, prepares graduate students for a career in science by expanding knowledge of biochemistry and molecular biology, and by developing the student's abilities in critical thought and creativity. The academic program emphasizes an in-depth study of the field with considerable flexibility to individually tailor course selection with regard to academic interests and area of specialization in the student's field of research.

A diversity of research programs is available for students. Areas of research specialization include molecular biology, physical biochemistry, molecular endocrinology, plant biochemistry and molecular biology, signal transduction, and biomedical research. Each program bestows a strong preparation for an academic research and teaching career, or a biochemical research career at both the pure and applied levels in private, governmental or industrial laboratories.

Students who have earned a bachelor's degree in physical, chemical, biological, or agricultural sciences at an accredited college or university are eligible to apply.

Students should prepare with the following courses prior to beginning graduate study in biochemistry:

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Biochemistry Department: Graduate Program

The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology baton has been passed into the hands of Professor Laurie Stargell, who is ready to go full speed ahead as the new chair of that department in Colorado State Universitys College of Natural Sciences.

Laurie Stargell, professor and department chair, biochemistry and molecular biology

Stargell strives to continue her mentoring, to grow and strengthen her department ranks, and to develop new programs and ideas. But these are just the start to her plans as department chair. She said, I feel strongly that we should empower our people, whether they be faculty, staff or students, with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed.

Stargell earned her B.A. in biology at the University of Virginia in 1986. She then went on to become a pre-doctoral fellow at the University of Rochester, where she received her Ph.D. in biology. There, she began studying basic machinery for RNA polymerase II transcription. This led into her research with chromatin, histone variants, and transcription processes in the model organism Tetrahymena.

After completing her studies at Rochester, Stargell began her postdoctoral research in genetics at Harvard Medical School and finished in 1996. As a postdoctoral fellow, she became fascinated by the power and breadth of approaches available in the yeast system for understanding mechanisms of transcriptional regulation, which she continues to make headway on today.

Stargell has been a part of CSU for the past 20 years and is committed to mentoring and providing research opportunities for students at all levels. She started out as an assistant professor in 1996, and moved up to associate professor in 2002. She has been the associate chair for undergraduate studies since 2006 and is involved in creating curriculum, advising, and helping with the scholarship processes for the growing undergrad population in biochemistry and molecular biology.

In 2008, she became a full professor in the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and continues to teach introduction to genetics, molecular genetics, a biochemistry seminar, and molecular biology. Thanks to her research and her ability to mentor at CSU, past students have reached career goals and now hold positions in academia and in the field.

She is also the chair of the board of directors for the Institute of Genome Architecture and Function. She has received honors from CSU such as the Jack E. Cermak Advising Award, CNS Professor Laureate, and Oliver P. Pennock Distinguished Service Award. She was also awarded, along with fellow CSU professor Jennifer Nyborg and former CSU professor Karolin Luger, a $7.8 million grant from the National Institutes of Health to study how chromosomes unravel to depict genes that dictate cell behavior.

Stargell also started an elementary outreach program along with fellow CSU Associate Professor Eric Ross, to get young students excited about science. Biochemistry is Elementary, is an eight-week-long program that has engaged over 600 fifth graders. It allows students to get hands on experience introducing genetics and biochemistry, while showing the value of studying model systems.

With a new chair being filled, the department looks ahead to keep research and advancement growing in the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology under new chair, Laurie Stargell.

The College of Natural Sciences extends its gratitude to Shing Ho who has been the departments chair for the last 10 years. As he returns to his faculty position, the department appreciates the progress he made during his time as chair. Biochemistry and molecular biology is now the fourth largest major in the college. And as of 2016, the entering class was 130, pushing majors to over 300 students. Whats more, its faculty continue to produce groundbreaking research.

Stargell sees her role as continuing this success. She said, Each member of our department, whether faculty, staff, or student, is important and essential, and together we are responsible for the overall health and welfare of the department.

See more here:
Laurie Stargell named chair of Department of Biochemistry and ... - Colorado State University News (press release)

Developments in modern biological sciences heavily rely on principles of chemistry and physics. The importance of this relationship has led to the design of a biochemistry major which prepares students for advanced study in areas as diverse as biophysics, biotechnology, molecular biology, molecular genetics, structural biology, genetic engineering, nanotechnology, neurobiology, cell biology, and systems biology, as well as, of course, biochemistry. It provides the basic science background for graduate and health professional schools, as well as for prospective science teachers.

The Roy and Diana Vagelos Scholars Program in the Molecular Life Sciences is an enhanced version of the biochemistry course program.

Since biochemistry is an interdisciplinary major, students learn that all processes in the cell follow the laws of physics. The specificity and diversity of biological molecules, organisms, and ecosystems have their roots in chemistry and physics. Students should understand that each experimental observation or result has limitations dependent on the methods or technology used for collecting data. They are, in addition, expected to appreciate that mathematics is needed to express the laws of physics for use in designing and interpreting experiments.

The unique feature of the undergraduate biochemistry program is a minimum of one year of research (2 credit units of BCHE 404) in one of the approximately 1000 independent biochemically-oriented research laboratories on or adjacent to campus. This requirement is possible because all of Penn's biomedical research programs are located in University City. Participation in research for credit (BCHE 299) may start as early as the sophomore year. As a result of research participation, biochemistry majors become familiar with the progression from college student to faculty in a research university. Since most graduate students and postdoctoral associates in these groups take jobs outside of academia, biochemistry majors are also exposed to the transition from academic research laboratory to positions in government and industry.

In addition to the 3 semester sequence in biological chemistry (CHEM 251/451/452), majors in the Undergraduate Biochemistry Club are responsible for the organization of a weekly speaker series with invited scientists from other universities and industrial laboratories. Graduates of this program develop not only a good grasp of the fundamentals of biochemistry, but also a strong sense of direction for future research. Currently, about thirty biochemistry majors graduate per year.

The primary objective is to have each biochemistry major excel in graduate school or medical school as a consequence of his or her Penn experience and curiosity. Graduate programs open to biochemistry majors include those in chemistry, biology, molecular biology, and molecular genetics, as well as all of the basic science departments in medical schools, including departments of pharmacology. Students considering a major in biochemistry should consult with the chairman as soon as possible, preferably in the freshman year, especially if one has AP credit in science and mathematics. Call 215-898-4771 or send an email to biochemistry@sas.upenn.edu for an appointment with the chair or to contact current undergraduate biochemistry students who are members of the Undergraduate Advisory Board.

Students with AP credit should consider submatriculation for a Chemistry MS to be awarded with the BA at graduation.

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The Biochemistry Major Program

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An illustration showing the biochemical structures present in a T Cell Receptor (image by Michelle Mischke).

This unit will introduce the course and cover the basics of biochemistry and cell composition. First, we will introduce the levels of organization of life, and the different types of organisms. We will then cover the structure of biological molecules and the molecular forces involved in the formation of these molecules. We will learn about the general structure and function of lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, as well as the composition, structure, and function of proteins. After learning about the major groups of macromolecules, we will explore their interactions within a cell, starting with metabolism, Gibbs free energy, biochemical reactions, enzymes and ATP as the energy currency. We will outline the cellular mechanisms for harvesting energy from glucose and related sugars, briefly outline glycolysis as a mechanism to generate ATP, and discuss the fate of the pyruvate produced in glycolysis under anaerobic and aerobic conditions. Finally, we will cover the general ideas of both cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation and how these two processes are used by cells to generate the ATP and the NADPH needed for the Calvin Cycle in photosynthesis.

During this unit, you will describe both the chemical and molecular composition of a cell, and define the basic components of biological macromolecules. You will identify the forces that act in biological systems: covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, van der Waal's forces, and hydrophobicity. You will draw a generic amino acid and categorize each of the 20 amino acids appropriately based upon the nature of the side chain. You will also apply the general laws of thermodynamics to biological reactions. In addition, you will define Gibbs free energy, determine the Gibbs free energy change associated with a biochemical reaction, and identify spontaneous and non-spontaneous reactions.

At the end of this unit, you will be familiar with the different levels of organization of life, and the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. You will understand the structures and properties of the major groups of macromolecules, including lipids and phospholipids, carbohydrates nucleic acids, and proteins, as well as their functions in the cell. You will be familiar with primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of protein structure and know what types of bonds and forces stabilize each level. In addition, you will understand the effect of an amino acid substitution on the general structure and function of a protein. You will know how ATP provides the energy to power cellular work.

Finally, you will have a greater understanding of the reactions in cellular respiration and photosynthesis, when they occur, and why they are important. You will understand the relationships between cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

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Summary

Biochemists and biophysicists study the chemical and physical properties of cells.

Biochemists and biophysicists study the chemical and physical principles of living things and of biological processes, such as cell development, growth, heredity, and disease.

Biochemists and biophysicists typically work in laboratories and offices to conduct experiments and analyze the results. Most work full time.

Biochemists and biophysicists need a Ph.D. to work in independent research and development. Most Ph.D. holders begin their careers in temporary postdoctoral research positions. Bachelors and masters degree holders qualify for some entry-level positions in biochemistry and biophysics.

The median annual wage for biochemists and biophysicists was $84,940 in May 2014.

Employment of biochemists and biophysicists is projected to grow 8 percent from 2014 to 2024, about as fast as the average for all occupations. More biochemists and biophysicists will be needed to use the knowledge they have gained from basic research to develop biological products and processes that improve peoples lives.

Explore resources for employment and wages by state and area for biochemists and biophysicists.

Compare the job duties, education, job growth, and pay of biochemists and biophysicists with similar occupations.

Learn more about biochemists and biophysicists by visiting additional resources, including O*NET, a source on key characteristics of workers and occupations.

Biochemists and biophysicists play a key role in developing new medicines to fight diseases such as cancer.

Biochemists and biophysicists study the chemical and physical principles of living things and of biological processes, such as cell development, growth, heredity, and disease.

Biochemists and biophysicists typically do the following:

Biochemists and biophysicists use advanced technologies, such as lasers and fluorescent microscopes, to conduct scientific experiments and analysis. They also use x rays and computer modeling software to determine the three-dimensional structures of proteins and other molecules. Biochemists and biophysicists involved in biotechnology research use chemical enzymes to synthesize recombinant DNA.

Biochemists and biophysicists work in basic and applied research. Basic research is conducted without any immediately known application; the goal is to expand human knowledge. Applied research is directed toward solving a particular problem.

Biochemists involved in basic research may study the molecular mechanisms by which cells feed, divide, and grow. Others study the evolution of plants and animals, to understand how genetic traits are carried through successive generations.

Biophysicists may conduct basic research to learn how nerve cells communicate or how proteins work. Biochemists and biophysicists who conduct basic research typically must submit written grant proposals to colleges and universities, private foundations, and the federal government to get the money they need for their research.

Biochemists and biophysicists who conduct applied research attempt to develop products and processes that improve peoples lives. For example, in medicine, biochemists and biophysicists develop tests used to detect infections, genetic disorders, and other diseases. They also develop new drugs and medications, such as those used to treat cancer or Alzheimers disease.

Applied research in biochemistry and biophysics has many uses outside of medicine. In agriculture, biochemists and biophysicists research ways to genetically engineer crops so that they will be resistant to drought, disease, insects, and other afflictions. Biochemists and biophysicists also investigate alternative fuels, such as biofuelsrenewable energy sources from plants. In addition, they develop ways to protect the environment and clean up pollution.

Many people with a biochemistry background become professors and teachers. For more information, see the profile on postsecondary teachers.

Most biochemists and biophysicists work in laboratories.

Biochemists and biophysicists held about 34,100 jobs in 2014. The industries that employed the most biochemists and biophysicists were as follows:

Biochemists and biophysicists typically work in laboratories and offices, to conduct experiments and analyze the results. Those who work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory must follow safety procedures to avoid contamination.

Most biochemists and biophysicists work on teams. Research projects are often interdisciplinary, and biochemists and biophysicists frequently work with experts in other fields, such as physics, chemistry, computer science, and engineering. Those working in biological research generate large amounts of data. They collaborate with specialists called bioinformaticians, who use their knowledge of statistics, mathematics, engineering, and computer science to mine datasets for correlations that might explain biological phenomena.

Some biotech companies need researchers to help sell their products. These products often rely on very complex technologies, and having an expert explain them to potential customers might be necessary. This role for researchers may be more common in smaller companies, where workers often fulfill multiple roles, such as working in research and in sales. Working in sales may require a substantial amount of travel. For more information on sales representatives, see the profile on wholesale and manufacturing sales representatives.

Most biochemists and biophysicists work full time and keep regular hours. They may occasionally have to work additional hours to meet project deadlines or to perform time-sensitive laboratory experiments.

Biochemists and biophysicists need a Ph.D. to work in independent research and development positions.

Biochemists and biophysicists need a Ph.D. to work in independent research and development positions. Most Ph.D. holders begin their careers in temporary postdoctoral research positions. Bachelors and masters degree holders are qualified for some entry-level positions in biochemistry and biophysics.

Most Ph.D. holders in biochemistry and biophysics have bachelors degrees in biochemistry or a related field, such as biology, chemistry, physics, or engineering. High school students can prepare for college by taking classes related to the natural and physical sciences, as well as math and computer science.

Students in bachelors degree programs in biochemistry or a related field typically take courses in mathematics, physics, and computer science in addition to courses in the biological and chemical sciences. Courses in mathematics and computer science are important for biochemists and biophysicists, who must be able to do complex data analysis. Most bachelors degree programs include required laboratory coursework. Additional laboratory coursework is excellent preparation for graduate school or for getting an entry-level position in industry. Students can gain valuable laboratory experience by working for a universitys laboratories. Occasionally, they can also gain such experience through internships with prospective employers, such as pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturers.

Ph.D. programs typically include advanced coursework in topics such as toxicology, genetics, and proteomics (the study of proteins). Several graduate programs include courses in bioinformatics, which involves using computers to study and analyze large amounts of biological data. Graduate students also spend a lot of time conducting laboratory research. Study at the masters level is generally considered good preparation for those interested in doing hands-on laboratory work. Ph.D.-level studies provide additional training in the planning and execution of research projects.

Most biochemistry and biophysics Ph.D. holders begin their careers in temporary postdoctoral research positions. During their postdoctoral appointments, they work with experienced scientists as they continue to learn about their specialties or develop a broader understanding of related areas of research.

Postdoctoral positions frequently offer the opportunity to publish research findings. A solid record of published research is essential to getting a permanent college or university faculty position.

Analytical skills. Biochemists and biophysicists must be able to conduct scientific experiments and analyses with accuracy and precision.

Communication skills. Biochemists and biophysicists have to write and publish reports and research papers, give presentations of their findings, and communicate with team members.

Critical-thinking skills. Biochemists and biophysicists draw conclusions from experimental results through sound reasoning and judgment.

Interpersonal skills. Biochemists and biophysicists typically work on interdisciplinary research teams and need to work well with others toward a common goal. Many serve as team leaders and must be able to motivate and direct other team members.

Math skills. Biochemists and biophysicists use complex equations and formulas regularly in their work; they also need a broad understanding of mathematics, including calculus and statistics.

Perseverance. Biochemists and biophysicists need to be thorough in their research and in their approach to problems. Scientific research involves substantial trial and error, and biochemists and biophysicists must not become discouraged in their work.

Problem-solving skills. Biochemists and biophysicists use scientific experiments and analysis to find solutions to complex scientific problems.

Time-management skills. Biochemists and biophysicists usually need to meet deadlines when conducting research. They must be able to manage time and prioritize tasks efficiently while maintaining their quality of work.

Some biochemists and biophysicists become natural sciences managers. Those who pursue management careers spend much of their time on administrative tasks, such as preparing budgets and schedules.

Median annual wages, May 2014

The median annual wage for biochemists and biophysicists was $84,940 in May 2014. The median wage is the wage at which half the workers in an occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $44,220, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $149,130.

In May 2014, the median annual wages for biochemists and biophysicists in the top industries in which they worked were as follows:

Most biochemists and biophysicists work full time and keep regular hours. Some positions require additional hours.

Percent change in employment, projected 2014-24

Employment of biochemists and biophysicists is projected to grow 8 percent from 2014 to 2024, about as fast as the average for all occupations. More biochemists and biophysicists are expected to be needed to do basic research that increases scientific knowledge and to research and develop biological products and processes that improve peoples lives. However, budgetary concerns may limit researchers access to funding for basic research.

The large baby-boom population is aging, and that, along with the demand for lifesaving new drugs and procedures to cure and to prevent disease, likely will drive demand for biochemists and biophysicists involved in biomedical research. For example, biochemists will be needed to conduct genetic research and to develop new medicines and treatments that are used to fight genetic disorders and diseases such as cancer. They will also be needed to develop new tests used to detect diseases and other illnesses. Currently, it is the smaller pharmaceutical companies, rather than the large companies, that tend to do biomedical research. This state of affairs helps the larger companies avoid risks and costs.

Areas of research and development in biotechnology other than health also are expected to provide employment growth for biochemists and biophysicists. Greater demand for clean energy should increase the need for biochemists who research and develop alternative energy sources, such as biofuels. A growing population and rising food prices are expected to fuel the development of genetically engineered crops and livestock that provide greater yields and require fewer resources. Efforts to discover new and improved ways to clean up and preserve the environment will increase demand for biochemists and biophysicists as well.

Biochemists and biophysicists involved in basic research should expect strong competition for permanent research and faculty positions at colleges and universities. Biochemists and biophysicists with postdoctoral experience who have had research articles published in scientific journals should have the best prospects for these positions. Many biochemists and biophysicists work through multiple postdoctoral appointments before getting a permanent position in academia.

A large portion of basic research in biochemistry and biophysics is dependent on funding from the federal government through the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation. Therefore, federal budgetary decisions will have a large impact on job prospects in basic research from year to year. Typically, there is strong competition among biochemists and biophysicists for research funding.

Most applied research projects that involve biochemists and biophysicists require the expertise of scientists in multiple fields, such as microbiology, medicine, and chemistry. Biochemists and biophysicists who have a broad understanding of molecular biology and its relationship to other disciplines should have the best job opportunities.

Those who gain laboratory experience through coursework or employment during their undergraduate studies will be the best prepared and have the best chances of gaining employment or entering graduate-level programs.

Biochemists and biophysicists

The Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) program produces employment and wage estimates annually for over 800 occupations. These estimates are available for the nation as a whole, for individual states, and for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas. The link(s) below go to OES data maps for employment and wages by state and area.

Occupational employment projections are developed for all states by Labor Market Information (LMI) or individual state Employment Projections offices. All state projections data are available at http://www.projectionscentral.com. Information on this site allows projected employment growth for an occupation to be compared among states or to be compared within one state. In addition, states may produce projections for areas; there are links to each states websites where these data may be retrieved.

Americas Career InfoNet includes hundreds of occupational profiles with data available by state and metro area. There are links in the left-hand side menu to compare occupational employment by state and occupational wages by local area or metro area. There is also a salary info tool to search for wages by zip code.

This table shows a list of occupations with job duties that are similar to those of biochemists and biophysicists.

Agricultural and food scientists research ways to improve the efficiency and safety of agricultural establishments and products.

Biological technicians help biological and medical scientists conduct laboratory tests and experiments.

Biomedical engineers combine engineering principles with medical and biological sciences to design and create equipment, devices, computer systems, and software used in healthcare.

Chemists and materials scientists study substances at the atomic and molecular levels and the ways in which the substances interact with one another. They use their knowledge to develop new and improved products and to test the quality of manufactured goods.

Epidemiologists are public health professionals who investigate patterns and causes of disease and injury in humans. They seek to reduce the risk and occurrence of negative health outcomes through research, community education, and health policy.

Medical scientists conduct research aimed at improving overall human health. They often use clinical trials and other investigative methods to reach their findings.

Microbiologists study microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites. They try to understand how these organisms live, grow, and interact with their environments.

Natural sciences managers supervise the work of scientists, including chemists, physicists, and biologists. They direct activities related to research and development, and coordinate activities such as testing, quality control, and production.

Physicians and surgeons diagnose and treat injuries or illnesses. Physicians examine patients; take medical histories; prescribe medications; and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive healthcare. Surgeons operate on patients to treat injuries, such as broken bones; diseases, such as cancerous tumors; and deformities, such as cleft palates.

Physicists and astronomers study the ways in which various forms of matter and energy interact. Theoretical physicists and astronomers may study the nature of time or the origin of the universe. Some physicists design and perform experiments with sophisticated equipment such as particle accelerators, electron microscopes, and lasers.

Postsecondary teachers instruct students in a wide variety of academic and career and technical subjects beyond the high school level. They also conduct research and publish scholarly papers and books.

Zoologists and wildlife biologists study animals and other wildlife and how they interact with their ecosystems. They study the physical characteristics of animals, animal behaviors, and the impacts humans have on wildlife and natural habitats.

The What They Do tab describes the typical duties and responsibilities of workers in the occupation, including what tools and equipment they use and how closely they are supervised. This tab also covers different types of occupational specialties.

The Work Environment tab includes the number of jobs held in the occupation and describes the workplace, the level of physical activity expected, and typical hours worked. It may also discuss the major industries that employed the occupation. This tab may also describe opportunities for part-time work, the amount and type of travel required, any safety equipment that is used, and the risk of injury that workers may face.

The How to Become One tab describes how to prepare for a job in the occupation. This tab can include information on education, training, work experience, licensing and certification, and important qualities that are required or helpful for entering or working in the occupation.

The Pay tab describes typical earnings and how workers in the occupation are compensatedannual salaries, hourly wages, commissions, tips, or bonuses. Within every occupation, earnings vary by experience, responsibility, performance, tenure, and geographic area. This tab may also provide information on earnings in the major industries employing the occupation.

The State and Area Data tab provides links to state and area occupational data from the Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) program, state projections data from Projections Central, and occupational information from the Department of Labor's Career InfoNet.

The Job Outlook tab describes the factors that affect employment growth or decline in the occupation, and in some instances, describes the relationship between the number of job seekers and the number of job openings.

The Similar Occupations tab describes occupations that share similar duties, skills, interests, education, or training with the occupation covered in the profile.

The More Information tab provides the Internet addresses of associations, government agencies, unions, and other organizations that can provide additional information on the occupation. This tab also includes links to relevant occupational information from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET).

The wage at which half of the workers in the occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. Median wage data are from the BLS Occupational Employment Statistics survey. In May 2014, the median annual wage for all workers was $35,540.

Additional training needed (postemployment) to attain competency in the skills needed in this occupation.

Typical level of education that most workers need to enter this occupation.

Work experience that is commonly considered necessary by employers, or is a commonly accepted substitute for more formal types of training or education.

The employment, or size, of this occupation in 2014, which is the base year of the 2014-24 employment projections.

The projected percent change in employment from 2014 to 2024. The average growth rate for all occupations is 7 percent.

The projected numeric change in employment from 2014 to 2024.

Typical level of education that most workers need to enter this occupation.

Additional training needed (postemployment) to attain competency in the skills needed in this occupation.

The projected numeric change in employment from 2014 to 2024.

The percent change of employment for each occupation from 2014 to 2024.

The projected numeric change in employment from 2014 to 2024.

The projected percent change in employment from 2014 to 2024.

The wage at which half of the workers in the occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. Median wage data are from the BLS Occupational Employment Statistics survey. In May 2014, the median annual wage for all workers was $35,547.

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Biochemists and Biophysicists : Occupational Outlook Handbook ...

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Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of ...

Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.[1] By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy through metabolism, biochemical processes give rise to the complexity of life. Over the last 40 years, biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine are engaged in biochemical research.[2] Today, the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of whole organisms.

Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Depending on the exact definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate and study molecular biology.

Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. The chemistry of the cell also depends on the reactions of smaller molecules and ions. These can be inorganic, for example water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids which are used to synthesize proteins. The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism. The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of disease. In nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control.

It once was generally believed that life and its materials had some essential property or substance (often referred to as the "vital principle") distinct from any found in non-living matter, and it was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life.[3] Then, in 1828, Friedrich Whler published a paper on the synthesis of urea, proving that organic compounds can be created artificially.[4]

The beginning of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase), in 1833 by Anselme Payen.[5]Eduard Buchner contributed the first demonstration of a complex biochemical process outside a cell in 1896: alcoholic fermentation in cell extracts of yeast.[6] Although the term "biochemistry" seems to have been first used in 1882, it is generally accepted that the formal coinage of biochemistry occurred in 1903 by Carl Neuberg, a German chemist.[7] Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, dual polarisation interferometry, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labeling, electron microscopy, and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle).

Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and its role in the transfer of information in the cell. This part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology.[8] In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins were instrumental in solving DNA structure and suggesting its relationship with genetic transfer of information.[9] In 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme.[10] In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, which led to growth of forensic science.[11] More recently, Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference (RNAi), in the silencing of gene expression.[12]

Around two dozen of the 92 naturally occurring chemical elements are essential to various kinds of biological life. Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life (exceptions being selenium and iodine), while a few common ones (aluminum and titanium) are not used. Most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between plants and animals. For example ocean algae use bromine but land plants and animals seem to need none. All animals require sodium, but some plants do not. Plants need boron and silicon, but animals may not (or may need ultra-small amounts).

Just six elementscarbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, and phosphorusmake up almost 99% of the mass of a human body (see composition of the human body for a complete list). In addition to the six major elements that compose most of the human body, humans require smaller amounts of possibly 18 more.[13]

The four main classes of molecules in biochemistry (often called biomolecules) are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Many biological molecules are polymers: in this terminology, monomers are relatively small micromolecules that are linked together to create large macromolecules known as polymers. When monomers are linked together to synthesize a biological polymer, they undergo a process called dehydration synthesis. Different macromolecules can assemble in larger complexes, often needed for biological activity.

Carbohydrates are made from monomers called monosaccharides. Some of these monosaccharides include glucose (C6H12O6), fructose (C6H12O6), and deoxyribose (C5H10O4). When two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis, water is produced, as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are lost from the two monosaccharides' hydroxyl group.

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Biochemistry - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Molecular Visualization Activities

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Chemistry Review the basics of chemistry you'll need to know to study biology.

Large Molecules Learn about structures and properties of sugars, lipids, amino acids, and nucleotides, as well as macromolecules including proteins, nucleic acids and polysaccharides.

Chemistry of Amino Acids learn the structure and chemistry of the amino acids that are found within proteins.

Acids & Bases Learn about the solvent properties of water, pH, pKa and buffering capacity.

Clinical Correlates of pH Levels Learn how metabolic acidosis or alkalosis can arise and how these conditions shift the bicarbonate equilibrium. The body's compensatory mechanisms and treatment options are also discussed.

B12/Folate Learn which biological reactions require either B12 or folate (or both); what the consequences of a deficiency in either vitamin are, and the important step in which B12 and folate metabolism overlap.

Metabolism Develop a basic understanding of some of the fundamental concepts of metabolism

Carbohydrate Metabolism Regulation Learn about the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism by insulin, glucagon and epinephrine, mainly in liver and muscle.

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The Biology Project: Biochemistry

The Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology unites two academically rich and overlapping disciplines - microbiology as an organism-defined discipline and biochemistry as a discipline underlying the study of all living systems. Edward Voorhees established the Department of Soil Chemistry and Bacteriology in 1901, the first department of agricultural microbiology in the country and the progenitor of the current Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology. The Biochemistry component of the Department had its genesis at the School of Agriculture as the Department of Agricultural Biochemistry in 1925 under Dr. Walter C. Russell. In 1965, the Departments of Agricultural Microbiology and Agricultural Biochemistry were merged to form what is today the Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology.

The mission of the Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology is to provide leadership in research and education in Biochemistry and Microbiology to advance our understanding of life processes. Microorganisms are the smallest living things, the oldest form of life on Earth, ubiquitous in the biosphere and perform diverse metabolic functions and ecosystem services that are central to and essential for life on Earth. Microbiology is the study of all aspects of microorganisms, exploiting bacteria, archaea, fungi and viruses; Biochemistry is the study of life processes of all living systems, at the level of molecules and their interactions. Our department combines these disciplines in one encompassing theme.

The academic programs in Biochemistry and Microbiology serve the central mission of the School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, and Rutgers University through its programs in fundamental and applied research and instruction in microbiology and biochemistry. Microbiology and Biochemistry are at the core of the food, biotechnology, and pharmaceutical industries, where they are broadly utilized in wide ranging applications from food fermentations, new pharmaceuticals production, waste treatment, to biodegradation of toxic chemicals. Thus, the fields of microbiology and biochemistry are major contributors toward industrial development, human, animal and plant health, environmental integrity and agricultural productivity.

- Max Hggblom, Chair

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Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry at the Rutgers ...

Hypothetical types of biochemistry are forms of biochemistry speculated to be scientifically viable but not proven to exist at this time.[2] The kinds of living beings currently known on Earth all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions, water as a solvent and DNA or RNA to define and control their form. If life exists on other planets or moons, it may be chemically similar; it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistriesfor instance involving other classes of carbon compounds, compounds of another element, or another solvent in place of water.

The possibility of life-forms being based on "alternative" biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion, informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds. It is also a common subject in science fiction.

The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon. Silicon is in the same group as carbon in the periodic table, and like carbon is tetravalent, although the silicon analogs of organic compounds are generally less stable. Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia, which, like water, is a polar molecule, and cosmically abundant; and non-polar hydrocarbon solvents such as methane and ethane, which are known to exist in liquid form on the surface of Titan.

Apart from the prospect of finding different forms of life on other planets or moons, Earth itself has been suggested as a place where a shadow biosphere of biochemically unfamiliar micro-organisms might have lived in the past, or may still exist today.[3][4]

Perhaps the least unusual alternative biochemistry would be one with differing chirality of its biomolecules. In known Earth-based life, amino acids are almost universally of the L form and sugars are of the D form. Molecules of opposite chirality have identical chemical properties to their mirrored forms, so life that used D amino acids or L sugars may be possible; molecules of such a chirality, however, would be incompatible with organisms using the opposing chirality molecules. Amino acids whose chirality is opposite to the norm are found on Earth, and these substances are generally thought to result from decay of organisms of normal chirality. However, physicist Paul Davies speculates that some of them might be products of "anti-chiral" life.[5]

It is questionable, however, whether such a biochemistry would be truly alien. Although it would certainly be an alternative stereochemistry, molecules that are overwhelmingly found in one enantiomer throughout the vast majority of organisms can nonetheless often be found in another enantiomer in different (often basal) organisms such as in comparisons between members of Archea and other domains,[citation needed] making it an open topic whether an alternative stereochemistry is truly novel.

On Earth, all known living things have a carbon-based structure and system. Scientists have speculated about the pros and cons of using atoms other than carbon to form the molecular structures necessary for life, but no one has proposed a theory employing such atoms to form all the necessary structures. However, as Carl Sagan argued, it is very difficult to be certain whether a statement that applies to all life on Earth will turn out to apply to all life throughout the universe.[6] Sagan used the term "carbon chauvinism" for such an assumption.[7] Carl Sagan regarded silicon and germanium as conceivable alternatives to carbon;[7] but, on the other hand, he noted that carbon does seem more chemically versatile and is more abundant in the cosmos.[8]

The silicon atom has been much discussed as the basis for an alternative biochemical system, because silicon has many chemical properties similar to those of carbon and is in the same group of the periodic table, the carbon group. Like carbon, silicon can create molecules that are sufficiently large to carry biological information.[9]

However, silicon has several drawbacks as an alternative to carbon. Silicon, unlike carbon, lacks the ability to form chemical bonds with diverse types of atoms as is necessary for the chemical versatility required for metabolism. Elements creating organic functional groups with carbon include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and metals such as iron, magnesium, and zinc. Silicon, on the other hand, interacts with very few other types of atoms.[9] Moreover, where it does interact with other atoms, silicon creates molecules that have been described as "monotonous compared with the combinatorial universe of organic macromolecules".[9] This is because silicon atoms are much bigger, having a larger mass and atomic radius, and so have difficulty forming double bonds (the double bonded carbon is part of the carbonyl group, a fundamental motif of bio-organic chemistry).

Silanes, which are chemical compounds of hydrogen and silicon that are analogous to the alkane hydrocarbons, are highly reactive with water, and long-chain silanes spontaneously decompose. Molecules incorporating polymers of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms instead of direct bonds between silicon, known collectively as silicones, are much more stable. It has been suggested that silicone-based chemicals would be more stable than equivalent hydrocarbons in a sulfuric-acid-rich environment, as is found in some extraterrestrial locations.[10]

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The Medical Biochemistry Page

Students considering careers in medicine, research or biotechnology often choose Earlhams biochemistry major, which combines studies in chemistry and biology. This major is particularly popular with students who are planning to attend medical school, veterinary school, and public health or other health science fields. The biochemistry major provides students with a strong foundation in cell biology, molecular biology, and chemistry with a strong emphasis on research and hands-on learning.

Numerous Earlham students have presented their research at recent national and regional meetings as well as a variety of other local sponsored symposia.

Faculty members in the biochemistry program have published in wide variety of peer-reviewed journals and have been funded extramurally by both government and private institutions.

Students have completed internships with such local organizations as, Belden Industries, Cope Environmental Center, Indianapolis Art Museum Conservation Laboratory, Reid Hospital, Richmond Friends School and Wayne County Health Clinic.

Students are encouraged to study abroad. Science faculty members have led semester-long off-campus programs (e.g. Tanzania, England, Oak Ridge, France, and New Zealand) and shorter expeditions during May Term and on Ford/Knight projects (e.g. Peru, Borneo, Bahamas, Galapagos Islands, Nebraska Sandhills, and Yellowstone National Park).

Research is at the heart of the Earlham College Biochemistry experience whether it's during the academic year, full-time during the summer or for an entire semester at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee. Students have also traveled to other parts of the world (e.g. China and Chile) with faculty to conduct research. Participating in one or more of these programs has certainly been transformative to students.

Earlham ranks in the top ten in the U.S. for the percentage of our graduates who earn doctorates in the life sciences and our alumni have high placement rates in medical school and other health science programs.

Recent graduates have entered M.D. or Ph.D. programs at Harvard University, University of Michigan, University of Minnesota, University of Wisconsin and others.

Our alumni have found work in industry at such companies as Roche or pursued careers as K-12 educators.

Regardless of the path they follow, our biochemistry majors are well prepared to face the problems of the world and be a part of forging solutions.

Rethinking the Criminal Mind

I am fascinated by the criminal mind and want to learn more about it. I want to revolutionize the way we think about the legal system and its impact on the mentally ill, explains Claire Welsh '16.

Helping People Through Science

Sydney McBride '15 plans to use her interest in science to help people by pursuing a medical career. Earlham was McBride's choice because Earlhamites enjoy a high percentage of acceptance into one of their top 3 choices for graduate or professional school.

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Citric Acid Cycle (Taylor Swift Style Parody) Biochemistry II Extra Credit
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