Physiologyis the study of the function of body parts and the body as a whole. Some specializations within each of these sciences follow:

A characteristic of all living systems ishomeostasis,or the maintenance of stable, internal conditions within specific limits. In many cases, stable conditions are maintained by negative feedback.

Innegative feedback,a sensing mechanism (a receptor) detects a change in conditions beyond specific limits. A control center, or integrator (often the brain), evaluates the change and activates a second mechanism (aneffector) to correct the condition; for example, cells that either remove or add glucose to the blood in an effort to maintain homeostasis are effectors. Conditions are constantly monitored by receptors and evaluated by the control center. When the control center determines that conditions have returned to normal, corrective action is discontinued. Thus, in negative feedback, the variant condition is canceled, or negated, so that conditions are returned to normal.

The regulation of glucose concentration in the blood illustrates how homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback. After a meal, the absorption of glucose (a sugar) from the digestive tract increases the amount of glucose in the blood. In response, specialized cells in the pancreas (alpha cells) secrete the hormone insulin, which circulates through the blood and stimulates liver and muscle cells to absorb the glucose. Once blood glucose levels return to normal, insulin secretion stops. Later, perhaps after heavy exercise, blood glucose levels may drop because muscle cells absorb glucose from the blood and use it as a source of energy for muscle contraction. In response to falling blood glucose levels, another group of specialized pancreatic cells (beta cells) secretes a second hormone, glucagon. Glucagon stimulates the liver to release its stored glucose into the blood. When blood glucose levels return to normal, glucagon secretion stops.

Compare this withpositive feedback,in which an action intensifies a condition so that it is driven farther beyond normal limits. Such positive feedback is uncommon but does occur during blood clotting, childbirth (labor contractions), lactation (where milk production increases in response to an increase in nursing), and sexual orgasm.

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What Is Anatomy and Physiology?