IN the past two decades there has been a growing interest among historians, students and masses at large, to explore medical history and the impact of medicine and diseases on society. Pacific medical history is one of the most ignored fields among historians. All preceding history has remained Eurocentric. Moreover, medical history is an esoteric field as one needs rigorous training as a medical historian to write clinician history. The vaccine, vaccination and means of production are historically contested fields.

Smallpox, perhaps more than any other disease, has inspired fear and terror in human beings because of its disgusting appearance, its extreme contagiousness and disfiguring consequences, especially in the eighteenth century when it seemed to be particularly virulent.

Pacific Islanders regarded new diseases like smallpox as a "white man's disease" as they indeed have regarded measles (Bach, S, The Colony of Fiji, 1874-1924, Government printer, Suva, Fiji, 1924, P.50) but they were impressed with the idea of vaccination that it was the "white man's cure" for the new disease. A disease such as smallpox had failed to make entry and the white man's medicine was a marvelous thing to them.

Globalisation of disease

The global spread of diseases, with the exception of deliberate attempts at biological warfare, has been largely unconscious and unintended.

According to the "germ theory of disease", the globalisation of disease was primarily unintended byproduct of European expansion and trade. Instead of being a last resort, the lethal microbes were used as hegemonial instrument to colonise the South Pacific in general and Fiji in particular. Military power, contagious diseases spread by microbes/micro-organism and superior technologies were the natural corollary used to colonise the New World.

There were also some deliberate attempts to spread diseases. James A Michener writes in his book Return to Paradise (Bantam Books, USA, 1966) about one such practice of the freebooter in the Pacific.

He describes the process as such: "A freebooter would catch a native, wait till he caught either measles or whooping cough, and then plop him on some island. Sometimes in less than a month 50 per cent of the population will die." (p185)

What is more outrageous is that when the ship will go back to Australia, the satanic captain would "narrate in public their cleverness in getting even with natives who were not willing to become slaves".

Various aspects of vaccination and their effects on society need to be researched, especially the history of the origin of smallpox, starting from Egypt and its further dissemination to distant parts of the New world such as Oceania (including Australia, PNG and New Zealand), the remunerations of local or provincial vaccinators in comparison with the European counterparts have witnessed a huge discrepancy.

Historical background

Fiji was ceded to Britain on October 10, 1874. Before the cession of Fiji to Britain, a report upon the effect of the climate of the newest possession was compiled by surgeon staff of her majesty's ship Pearl, Adam B, who visited in 1873-1874 and documented diseases in Fiji.

He mentioned Fiji was strictly tropical, could materially check the spread of diseases and prevent the accumulation of poisonous miasmatic arising from the enormous quality of decaying vegetable matter. He also mentioned smallpox and fever were as yet nearly unknown in Fiji.

The report on the health of the white population of Fiji mentioned the manner in which it was affected by the climate and modes of living together with some remarks on the different diseases, the nurturing of children, white and half-caste and the general hygienic state of the Islands.

Penalty on absentee

Various repositories such as the National Archives of Fiji reveal the attempts by vaccinators and physicians to carry out a mass vaccination of the islanders soon after the establishment of colonial rule. These efforts were met initially with very cold response from the islanders. In those vaccination campaigns, children were not brought by the parents.

A fine was later imposed by the administration on parents. Thus, some reports and ordinances passed for prevention of smallpox became highly valuable which are kept at the National Archives.

Why vaccination?

After a comprehensive survey of the history of the origin of smallpox and vaccination in the Pacific, especially in Fiji, it can be concluded from first-hand records that the British had several reasons for making the vaccination campaign a success.

Firstly, despite the islanders' resistance of vaccination and inspection, the colonisers had employed a huge administrative set-up by appointing European and native vaccinators to cure not just themselves but also the natives who could be colonised in the long-term. This reflected British's political motives to govern Fiji and simultaneously have a strategic advantage in the South Pacific.

Secondly, in addition to the political motive, they also had economic reasons for the British' vaccination campaign to maintain constant flow of income by using natives and foreign labourers in Fiji's plantations without the disruption of the deadly epidemic. Thirdly, this campaign also had a religious underpinning as smallpox was considered to be a "white man's disease" and a vaccination campaign was used as "white man's cure" to spread Christianity in Fiji.

Therefore, medicine was used as an auxiliary of religion. (Henderson, GC Fiji and Fijian 1835-1856, Angus and Robertson Ltd, Sydney, 1931,P.134) Besides religious mission, this campaign was also used to justify the acceptance of the British in Fijian society and extend their position as a saviour to cure mankind.

Lastly, all possible approaches were adopted for the vaccination campaign to succeed such as the hiring of vaccinators; natives, Europeans, missionaries, traders and private vaccinators; and issuing of vaccination certification; prosecuting and fining the defaulters who avoided vaccination; publishing and conducting lectures; even contesting with the buli and importation of lymph from New Zealand.

Conclusion

Overall it can be said that vaccination campaign had been a combination of economic, political, religious, social and strategic implications to successfully colonise the Fiji Islands by the British. This research probably raises more questions than the answers.

* Dr Mumtaz Alam is an assistant professor in history at the College of Humanities and Education of the Fiji National University. The views expressed are his own and not of this newspaper or his employer. For comments or suggestions, email: mumtazalig@gmail.com

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'New' way to look at smallpox - Fiji Times